// ppgen source babes-src.txt
//
// first edit: 08-feb-2016
.dt The East India Vade-mecum, by Captain Thomas Williamson
.de a:link { text-decoration: none; }
.de div.tnotes { padding-left:1em;padding-right:1em;background-color:#E3E4FA;border:1px solid silver; margin:1em 5% 0 5%; text-align: justify;}
.de td.hang { padding-left: 0.50in; text-indent: -0.25in; }
.de sup { font-size: 0.8em; }
.de ul.kd1 { list-style-type: none; margin-left: 6em; padding-left: 0px; }
.de div.epubonly { visibility: hidden; display: none; }
.de .blackletter { font-family: "Old English Text MT", Gothic, serif;}
.de .column-container { text-align: center; clear: both; padding-left: 1em; width:100%; }
.de .column { display: inline-block; text-align: left; vertical-align: middle; width:30%;}
.de @media handheld { div.epubonly { visibility: visible; display: block;}}
.sr h |||
.sr h |||
.sr t ||=|
.sr t ||=|
.sr t |\[oe]\]|œ|
//Begin quote
.dm start_quote
.fs 80%
.sp 2
.dm-
//End Quote
.dm end_quote
.fs 100%
.sp 2
.dm-
// Begin Poetry
.dm start_poem
.fs 95%
.nf b
.dm-
// End Poetry
.dm end_poem
.nf-
.fs 100%
.dm-
.pb
.dv class='tnotes'
.ce
Transcriber’s Note:
.if t
This version of the text cannot represent certain typographical
effects. Italics are delimited with the ‘_’ character as _italic_.
.if-
Minor errors, attributable to the printer, have been corrected. Please
see the transcriber’s #note:endnote# at the end of this text
for details regarding the handling of any textual issues encountered
during its preparation.
.dv class='epubonly'
The cover image has been modified to include the title, author and
publication date, and is, so modified, added to the public domain.
.dv-
.dv-
.bn 001.png
.pn +1
.nf c
THE
EAST INDIA
VADE-MECUM.
.nf-
.bn 002.png
.bn 003.png
.h1
THE | EAST INDIA | VADE-MECUM;
.nf c
OR,
Complete Guide
TO
GENTLEMEN INTENDED FOR THE
CIVIL, MILITARY, OR NAVAL SERVICE
OF THE
HON. EAST INDIA COMPANY.
.nf-
.hr 10%
.nf c
BY
CAPTAIN THOMAS WILLIAMSON,
Author of ‘The Wild Sports of the East.’
IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL. II.
.nf-
.hr 50%
.nf c
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR BLACK, PARRY, AND KINGSBURY,
Booksellers to the Honorable East India Company,
7,
LEADENHALL-STREET.
.nf-
.hr 5%
.nf c
1810.
.nf-
.bn 004.png
.bn 005.png
.pb
.pn v
.h2
CONTENTS | OF | VOL. II.
.ta h:50 r:4 c:2 r:4
|PAGES | |
Great Heats, modes of refrigeration,\
general plan of building, various kinds of\
lime and cement, tarras floors | #1#|-|16
Pucka and Cutcha houses, ancient buildings,\
white-ants, sleeping in the open air, floors\
on pots, north-westers, bungalows and out-offices,\
mats of sorts, satrinjes, cheeks,\
glass windows, talc as a substitute, Chalk-Hills,\
purdahs | #17#|-|53
Various kinds of timber, modes of floating\
them, prices, and uses, mango-fruit, and\
plantations |#54#|-|84
Bamboos, mode of fitting-out trading-boats,\
toddy-tree, coir rigging, cocoa-nuts, oil\
from them, meemii-ke-tale, writing on\
cocoa-tree leaves, hot winds |#84#|-|106
State of society among Europeans, sitting-up,\
meals, wines, malt liquors. Invalid\
Establishment, levees, sugar-candy, bread,\
camp-ovens, milk, ghee-butter, meats, buffaloes |#107#|-| 149
.bn 006.png
.pn +1
Spirits, wines, fish, poultry, table apparatus,\
furniture, china-bazar, Europe-shops, wax\
and candles, insects, snakes of sorts, antidotes\
to their poison, musquitoes, and curtains\
to repel them, cock-roaches, scorpions,\
centipedes, wasps, hornets |#150#|-|198
Shampoing, amusements, theatres, races,\
gaming, music, balls,—Churches, schools,\
Fort-William, military establishments |#198#|-|223
False ideas of Indian prosperity, anecdote,\
depreciation of specie, the bore, brackish\
waters, preservation of rain-water. The\
several great rivers, physical properties,\
fossile alkali, streams impregnated with\
minerals, inundations, Hindu corpses,\
plague not known in India |#223#|-|267
Tanks and jeels, eleemosynary alligators,\
seraies, gunjes, durgaws, Hill people,\
bunds, quicksands, wells on great roads,\
hot-wells, sol-lunar influence on fevers,\
huckeems, state of medicine, refrigerating\
principle, state of learning, Koits, Láláhs,\
Gooroos, good books |#268#|-|325
Posts, and conveyance of parcels, &c., travelling\
in a palanquin, rice, mode of expelling\
weevils, meal from barley, wheat, &c.,\
travelling by water, the Soonderbund Passage,\
water in jars, fire-wood, New Harbour,\
entrances of the Hoogly River.\
Opinions regarding Gour, and the great\
Delta of the Ganges |#325#|-|366
Salt manufacture |#366#|-|368
Hire of budjrows, rates and distances, precautions,\
contraband trade, trading and\
baggage-boats, tracking, Decoits, or pirates,\
guards requisite, Coolies, Chokeydars,\
and Dowraws, expert thieves, anecdotes,\
leger de main, puppet-shows, gymnastic\
feats, Nuts, or Indian gypsies,\
curious comparison of their language |#368#|-|420
.bn 007.png
.pn +1
Slavery, how far tolerated, Indian Lock-Hospitals,\
summary punishment of adultery,\
curious incident, dancing-girls |#420#|-|429
Elephants, their points, qualities, prices, &c.,\
camels, the appropriate soils, conveying them\
over rivers, bullocks, the Company’s regulations,\
tattoos, or indigenous breed of horses,\
tanians, tazees, serissahs, horses imported\
from Persia, the Punjab, &c., stables |#430#|-|467
Tanning, artificers, great improvements made\
in most professions, newspapers, Persian\
Akbars, paper |#468#|-|473
The Mocurrery (or perpetual) System of\
Revenue. The periods for collection, stations\
of collectors, judges, commercial residents,\
custom masters, and diplomatic\
characters |#474#|-|497
Security afforded to private property, inland\
traders, agency-houses, rates of commission\
and remittance, trade and situation of\
Calcutta. Conclusion |#498#|-|506
.ta-
.bn 008.png
.bn 009.png
.pb
.pn 1
.sp 4
.nf c
THE
EAST INDIA
VADE-MECUM.
.nf-
.sp 2
For some months, generally during the latter
part of the rains, the weather is so close and
sultry, that universal exudation takes place,
even while sitting quiet. The natives, as I remarked
in the outset of this subject, have,
from experience, adopted a very different mode
from that we should have expected to find in
use, under such a latitude. We should, no
doubt, have been prepared to see airy habitations,
through which the wind could pass freely
in every direction. But it is far otherwise;
and Europeans have, at length, become convinced,
that the most insupportable heats are
derived from the glare of light objects; or, in
other words, from the reflection of surfaces intensely
acted upon by a vertical sun.
Some conception may be formed of that intensity,
from the fact of meat having been broiled
.bn 010.png
.pn +1
on the cannon mounted upon the ramparts of
Fort-William! We, therefore, must coincide
with the habits of the natives, to a certain extent,
if we mean to retain health, or to acquire
comfort. Such, indeed, should, in every country,
be held in view: for, however absurd many
practices may at first appear, it will ordinarily
result that necessity was their parent. I do
not mean to say that we should imitate, much
less adopt, without discrimination, all we see;
but it may be considered an axiom, that, by
taking the general outline of indigenous customs
for our guide, if we err, it will be on the
safe side. Nothing can be more preposterous
than the significant sneers of gentlemen on their
first arrival in India; meaning, thereby, to ridicule,
or to despise, what they consider effeminacy,
or luxury. Thus, several may be seen
annually walking about without chattahs, (i.e.
umbrellas,) during the greatest heats; they affect
to be ashamed of requiring aid, and endeavor
to uphold, by such a display of indifference,
the great reliance placed on strength of constitution.
This unhappy infatuation rarely exceeds
a few days; at the end of that time,
sometimes only of a week, (nay, I have known
the period to be much shorter,) we too often
are called upon to attend the funeral of the
self-deluded victim! The first attack is generally
announced by cold shiverings, and bilious
.bn 011.png
.pn +1
vomiting; delirium speedily ensues, when putrefaction
advances with such hasty strides, as
often to render interment necessary so soon as
can possibly be effected.
The glare is certainly far more distressing
than exposure to the sun, at some seasons: but
nothing can equal the effects of both glare and
sun-shine, acting upon the human frame, during
a Midsummer’s day; when, perhaps, not a
breath of air is moving, when every leaf seems
to repose, and every bird, saving the vulture,
the adjutant, (or argeelah,) and the kite, retires
to some shady spot, to avoid the solar ray.
At such times, the peaceful Hindu confines
himself to an apartment, from which light is
generally excluded: there he sits among his
family, enjoying his pipe, refreshing himself
occasionally by bathing, drinking the pure beverage
afforded by some adjacent spring or well;
and, in general, avoiding to eat, except of ripe
fruits, especially the turbooz, or water-melon,
until the cool of the evening. In the meanwhile,
however, he perspires copiously, even
though in a state of inactivity, unless when
refreshed by a punkah, or fan, moved either by
his own hand, or by that of some menial.
The instinct of the birds above named, to
wit, the argeelah, the vulture, and the kite, all
of which are extremely numerous throughout
India, and contribute greatly to the salubrity of
.bn 012.png
.pn +1
the air, by carrying off astonishing quantities
of putrefactive offal, &c., is wonderful! About
mid-day, when the sun’s beams strike with
incredible force upon the earth’s surface, these
feathered scavengers ascend, perhaps to the
height of seven or eight hundred yards, so that
the largest of them, (the argeelah) is scarcely
discernible: there they soar beyond the reach
of reflection from the heated soil, enjoying the
freshness of a cooler atmosphere, and descending
only when allured by the scent of prey.
Their sense of smelling must, indeed, be acute;
for we see them, especially the vultures, flying
for miles, and from all quarters, towards some
carcase, usually that of a Hindu, floating down
the stream, or stranded upon some shelving
bank; but so situated as to render it perfectly
certain that the visual faculties could have no
concern in the discovery.
Few of the natives have tatties applied to their
doors, or windows; though by no means insensible
to the gratification they afford; but
penury, or, to say the least, close and parsimonious
economy, prompt to the denial of
such a comfort; a comfort without which any
constitution, not inured to the climate, would
speedily give way. It is really curious to observe
what may be effected by habit! When
we understand how fatally the sun’s rays act
upon our European frames, even while under
.bn 013.png
.pn +1
the shade of a thick painted umbrella, and although
our diet may be nearly similar to that
of the most abstemious Hindu, it certainly must
appear wonderful, that children, of whatever
age, whose rapid circulation, and sable color,
should, according to the estimates we form of
temperament, be highly unfavorable to such
exposure, run about at all seasons, bare-headed,
and perfectly nude; seeming to set the sun,
the wind, and the rain, alike at defiance. We see
the same individuals making long journies, in
the most torrid seasons, under nearly similar circumstances;
nay, they even carry bangies, containing,
on an average, full a maund, (82lb. avoirdupoise,)
sixteen, eighteen, twenty miles, or even
more, under such an oppressive heat as would
kill an European outright; and this, too, for a
few pence. If, in considering this point, we
urge the benefits of extreme temperance, we
urge that which often does not exist; since
many, who practise the above, may be ranked
among the most arduous votaries of Bacchus,
devouring fish, flesh, and fowl, highly spiced,
whenever their purses, or the bounty of others,
may afford them so welcome a regale. When
we see the several shop-keepers, in every city
and town, serving their customers, or, in their
absence, smoking like Vesuvius, in their little
boutiques, exposed to the glare, and to the
burning winds; when we see these persons,
.bn 014.png
.pn +1
with parched skins, and their eyes violently irritated,
and clogged, by the clouds of dust which
range along the streets, and which, occasionally
taking a whirl, nearly suffocate all within their
reach; we may then fairly admire the force of
habit, and congratulate ourselves on the blessings
of a more temperate climate!
In the same situations, we see two classes of
persons, both natives of the soil, acting in
diametric opposition to each other; and exhibiting
that powerful resistance capable of being
made by long residence, or rather by aboriginal
habitude, against that which never fails to consign
our countrymen to the grave. The former
class confine themselves, as much as their avocations
may permit, within gloomy, but cool,
chambers; living most abstemiously, yet, at
certain times, exposing themselves in the most
unequivocal manner to the severest heats: the
other, perfectly inattentive to the dictates of prudence,
yet performing what we may fairly term
wonders, in opposition to their destructive
locality. When the English first visited India,
they adopted a mode of building by no means
consistent with common sense, and displaying
a total ignorance of the most simple of nature’s
laws. We accordingly find, that all the old
buildings, such as may lay claim to a duration
of from forty to sixty years, were, like the
celebrated Black-Hole, constructed more like
.bn 015.png
.pn +1
ovens, than like the habitations of enlightened
beings. The doors were very small, the windows
still less, in proportion, while the roofs
were carried up many feet above both. Those
roofs were in themselves calculated to retain
heat to an extreme, being built of solid tarras,
at least a foot thick, lying horizontally upon
immense timbers, chiefly of teak, or of saul
wood. Again, when they built bungalows, (i.e.
thatched houses,) of one (ground) floor only,
the utmost care was taken to close up all the
intervals between the thatch, and the walls, on
which it rested; so as to exclude the external
air, as well as the dust: a practice religiously
observed even to the present date. The obvious
consequence of this latter construction is, that,
whatever air is retained between the thatch,
(which, in the course of the day, becomes very,
very warm,) and the upper lines of the windows
must be highly rarefied.
Thus, we invariably observe, that, towards
sun-set, when the inhabitants quit the inner
hall, &c., either to sit out on chabootahs, (i.e.
large terraces,) raised perhaps a foot or two
from the level of the area, and abundantly
watered for the occasion; or when they remove
to the windward veranda (or balcony); on
either of these occasions, the interior becomes
intolerably hot, on account of the rarefied air
being drawn down by that current inevitably
.bn 016.png
.pn +1
attendant upon the removal of all the tatties;
and, by the throwing open of all the doors and
windows.
In a preceding page, I have shewn, that the
French generally acted upon more philosophical
principles; they making their doors and windows
remarkably high: but, there yet remains a very
important improvement to be made; namely,
the introduction of tin ventilators, to be inserted
near the summits of the thatches. It is a fact,
that, during many months in the year, the houses
built by most Europeans, and especially their
bungalows, are so extremely heated, as to render
it absolutely impossible to sleep in their interior,
without the intervention of some artificial
means for keeping the air around the bed at a
proper temperature.
However faulty the first European builders in
India might have been, the moderns have by no
means made such improvements as we should
suppose experience would have led them to
adopt. Whether from economy, or from more
attention to exterior, than to comfort, scarce
a house is now built with such spacious, lofty,
and substantial verandas, as are to be seen on
the south side of almost every old mansion.
Some of these antiquated edifices had verandas
on several sides, and a few might be quoted having
them all around; as seen in the officers’
quarters at Berhampore, and Dinapore. It can
.bn 017.png
.pn +1
scarcely be doubted, that such verandas are,
in every respect, admirably suited to the climate;
since they prevent the sun from striking
on the main wall; which, in exposed situations,
have been known to give from 8° to 10° difference
on the thermometer; under circumstances
in every other respect similar.
It is peculiar, that, until within the last
twenty-five years, the ground floors, that is,
the whole of the basements, of those fine large
houses to be seen in all quarters of Calcutta,
and in various parts of the interior, were consigned
to the reception of palanquins, gigs,
water-stores, or to be wine-godowns, (or cellars,)
butler-connahs, (or pantries,) and even, in some
instances, stables! In those days, the whole
of the family resided in, and confined themselves
to, the first floor; which was then the
summit of the habitation: leaving to their luggage,
cattle, and menials, that part which has
lately been discovered to be, in every respect,
most suitable to the accommodation of the
European population. In houses of agency,
&c., we now see the basement converted partly
into offices, and but rarely any portion of it appropriated
as above described; while, the generality
of new houses are built upon a scale such as
favors this salutary change, by giving sufficient
height to the lower apartments; thereby adapting
them to every purpose, and occasioning a
.bn 018.png
.pn +1
considerable reduction of the ground plan,
in consequence of the accommodations thus
gained.
The practice of building houses without
verandas, certainly cannot be approved;
whereas, the old mode of building them on pillars,
was highly ornamental, and, at some
seasons, not less appropriate: but, the great
art of keeping a house cool during the prevalence
of the hot-winds, rests entirely on shutting
them out, except at some few apertures
supplied with tatties; which, being kept constantly
moist, or, indeed, dripping wet, produce
such an immense evaporation, as to cool the
interior completely: of course, a suitable
draught must be preserved, by opening some
window, &c. on the lee-side. This is commonly
effected by means of Venetians; which allow
the air to pass, but debar the access of glare.
Without adverting to the expence, it should
seem that a close-veranda is by far preferable
to an open one; and, were it not for the immense
additional charges, we can hardly doubt
that the European inhabitants of Calcutta would,
in imitation of the generality of bungalow-residents,
have their apartments surrounded by a
veranda, of full fourteen feet in width; with
apertures, of a good size, in the exterior wall,
corresponding with those of the interior. This
arrangement renders the generality of bungalows
.bn 019.png
.pn +1
remarkably pleasant; but, it must be noticed,
that there is a very wide difference in the expence
incurred in rendering them so: their roofs
being of thatch, and their walls of sun-burnt
bricks, plastered with mud and chaff, offer a
great contrast in the out-lay, both as relating to
the labor, and to the materials, in a house
constructed of burnt bricks, and good lime,
whose roof is of masonry, and in which timbers
of great price are every where used. Accordingly,
we find, that, in almost every part of
India, an excellent bungalow may be built for
about five thousand rupees, completely fitted
with glass doors, and windows, and with all
the necessary out-offices duly tiled, or thatched,
according to their purposes; while, a house
suited to the accommodation of the same family,
in Calcutta, could not be finished for less than
ten times that sum.
The bricks form a very, very small portion of
the disbursements incident to building in India:
so cheap, indeed, are they, that most of the
made-roads about Calcutta, and in other parts,
are formed by laying broken, or even whole,
bricks regularly; giving the centre two or three
layers, gradually tapered off to the sides, and
then covering them with a coat of rubbish, or,
which is far better, coarse sand. Such roads
are extremely firm, and far more durable, than
.bn 020.png
.pn +1
those we make with gravel, flint, lime-stone,
&c. But great allowance must be made for the
heavy machines used among us, and carrying
such tremendous burthens; whereas, an Indian
hackery can rarely weigh five cwt., nor can its
load be averaged at more than fifteen cwt.,
being altogether only a ton. We well know,
that our common narrow-wheeled waggons
weigh from fifteen to twenty-five cwt.; and,
that, except where weigh-bridges limit their
burthens, it is by no means uncommon to see
them carrying from two and a half, up to four,
tons. Three chaldron of coals will be found to
average about seventy cwt.; yet, are often
drawn by three horses through the streets of
London.
The lime used in Calcutta, is brought down
from the Morungs, and their vicinity, in large
boats, being previously slaked; though it is
sometimes imported in its quick state, or as
nearly so as accident may permit. It may
readily be concluded, that, after a passage of
from three to four hundred miles, this article is
rather deteriorated; especially as the voyage
can rarely be effected under three weeks or a
month. The prices of this kind of lime, made
from a very firm stone, called gutty, abundant
in some parts, vary much according to the
season, and to the demand: it has been sold as
.bn 021.png
.pn +1
low as six or seven rupees per hundred maunds,
but, at other times, has reached to twenty and
twenty-five.
At Madras, and indeed all along the coast of
Coromandel, as well as on some parts of the Malabar
border, an excellent kind of lime is made
from sea shells. This nearly equals what is made
in Italy, from the refuse of marble, and receives
an extraordinary fine surface, competiting even
with that of polished glass; at the same time
that it is incomparably firm, and durable. When
laid upon a wall, which is done only by way of
a finish, it is carefully freed from grit, and kept
working, and rubbing, until nearly dry; thereby
to prevent the surface from cracking, as it would
be subject to do, when acted upon by the hot
air at mid-day: when nearly dry, it is rubbed
with coarse calico cloths, until it receives a
beautiful lustre, which causes it to appear semi-diaphanous.
A few houses at Calcutta have
been finished with this kind of lime, conveyed
from Madras by shipping; but the expence,
being very considerable, has occasioned the
common Morung lime to be generally employed,
both for cement, and for white-washing.
In the ordinary buildings constructed in the
upper parts of the country, a weaker kind of
lime is obtained by burning a substance called
kunkur, which, at first, might be mistaken for
small rugged flints, slightly coated with soil.
.bn 022.png
.pn +1
The experiments made upon these alkaline concretions,
which abound in most parts above
Bengal Proper, and, in some places, prove extremely
troublesome to the farmer, but especially
to the horticulturist, give the following result:
calcareous earth, 41, cilicious earth, 16, calx of
iron, 3, and air, 40. Kunkur is not easily reduced
to a calx, it requiring a greater heat than
is necessary to burn the harder kinds of gutty;
it is, likewise, less durable and tenacious as a
cement; of which the color, viz. commonly what
we call fawn, is a strong indication.
Whether from want of sufficient power in their
kilns, or that the kunkur is so peculiarly hard,
we commonly find that, on slaking, a large portion
of the interior of each lump remains unsubdued.
These insoluble masses are often pounded
by means of a dainky, or foot-break, and mixed
with the perfect calx: nor is the lime burner
very scrupulous in regard to keeping out the
wood ashes, &c., remaining at the bottom of the
kiln, after the kunkur has been taken out; on
the contrary, he will, if not very narrowly
watched, mix as much as he can with the calx;
thereby causing the lime to be very considerably
deteriorated. This kind of lime, commonly
called cutcha, (i.e. weak,) sells for about six or
seven rupees per hundred maunds.
In all parts of India, the lime-burners proceed
on the most expensive plan; their kilns being
.bn 023.png
.pn +1
rarely more than four feet in diameter, nor
above that much in height: consequently, they
have not sufficient accumulation, concentration,
or reverberation of heat, to burn the stones properly;
neither do they, in general, break them
sufficiently small, but bundle them in, with very
little attention to regularity or economy. It is
the same with the brick and tile-kilns; which
are, for the most part, of a pyramidal form; the
raw bricks being laid intermediately with the
fuel, and the exterior being plastered over, perhaps
half a foot in thickness, with mud. The
best bricks I ever saw in India were made by an
engineer officer, who had some extensive public
works to carry on. He first built the whole of
the walls of a bungalow he required, with sun-burnt
bricks, properly cemented with mud well
filled in; taking care to arch over the door and
window openings in such way, that the frames
could be afterwards introduced. The whole interior
was then laid with bricks and fuel, while
the exterior of the veranda walls were also closed
in with sufficient to heat them thoroughly; and
a complete coating was given, in the ordinary
way. The bricks baked uncommonly well,
while the walls became a solid mass, capable of
resisting all the elements, should they unite for
its destruction. The bungalow proved remarkably
dry, and the plaster was found to adhere in
a surprizing manner, while rats, snakes, &c.,
.bn 024.png
.pn +1
were all set at defiance; it being impossible for
them to burrow in so hard a substance: the
greater part of the cement, which happened to
contain cilicious particles, was nearly vitrified.
Thirty years ago, the generality of houses
were coated with the same kind of tarras as is
employed for laying the floors, and the roofs:
this was made of chunam, (i.e. white-lime,) one
third; soorky, (i.e. brick-dust,) one third; and
sand, one third; these, being mixed duly with
a large portion of cut hemp, (wool being very
scarce, and short hair not to be procured on
any terms,) together with some jaggery, or refuse
molasses, made a tolerably strong cement.
The surface, after a house had been duly
plastered, was washed, while yet moist, with
a strong solution of lime in water. This
would have been enough to blind every man,
woman, or child, in the place, had it not been
partially remedied, by the admixture of some
coloring matter with the finishing wash: but,
whether red, yellow, or blue, which were the
prevailing colors, it was found that the alkali
generally destroyed their appearance, and left
a motley kind of work.
The good taste of a few individuals, chiefly
gentlemen in the corps of engineers, gradually
overcame this vile imitation of Dutch and Portugueze
finery, they substituting, in their public
works, a plaster composed of river sand,
.bn 025.png
.pn +1
saturated with a solution of white lime, of the
consistency of cream. The addition of the usual
allowance of cut hemp, gave this simple compound,
(if I may so blend the terms,) not only
much additional durability, but a remarkably
neat appearance; especially when the body of
the building was of that fine grey, thus obtained,
and the cornices, &c. were finished of a pure
white. Houses thus exteriorly finished became
yet further neat, by the contrast of their Venetian
windows, invariably painted green: some
prefer all verdigris; others, a deep clear green
for the frame-work, with verdigris for the several
leaves, or valves.
Almost every house has folding Venetians to
each window, or outward door; these are sustained
by very strong hinges, which allow each
fold, or shutter, to open outwards, and to lie
back flat upon the exterior wall: in that position
the Venetians are kept from blowing about,
by means of hooks; in the same manner as we
see practised in England, where this kind of
shutter is in use. Sash-windows are never
made upon the European construction, but move
invariably in two folds, one to the right, the
other to the left; each opening inwardly, and
lying within the thickness of the wall, or nearly
so.
In no part of the world is more attention paid
to the foundation of a house than in India; and
.bn 026.png
.pn +1
that not without necessity, the rains being so
very heavy as to sap all weak buildings exposed
to their action, either above, below, or laterally.
When houses are built with what is termed
cutcha, that is, with sun-dried bricks cemented
with mud, and either plastered with the same,
or with mortar, the least crack in the roof, or
the smallest hollow near the foundation, will
teem with danger. The rain which, often for a
whole day, descends in streams, soon gets into
the walls, where it does incalculable mischief:
many of these houses, whose substance and
general appearance should indicate a better fate,
may annually be seen in ruins after a continued
fall of heavy, or of drizzling, but oblique, rain:
the latter is peculiarly unfavorable to such
buildings as are insecurely coated; it drifts in
under the plaster, damps the mud cement, and
brings down the heavy roofs with a most sonorous
crash. Few of these cutcha houses are now
to be seen with tarras roofs; such as are so
built for the sake of cheapness, being, almost
without exception, intended for thatches, and
thus becoming what we term bungalows. The
natives build sometimes on that kind of half
and half plan, which commonly, in the end,
cheats the contriver. Thus, I have seen some,
of a small description, built with cutcha (or sun-dried)
bricks for the interior, while the exterior
of the wall was made of pucka (or burnt) bricks;
.bn 027.png
.pn +1
from whose interstices the mortar was carefully
picked out, as though about to be pointed; for
the purpose of causing the exterior plastering
to get into the joints, and thus to retain its position
firmly. Admitting, and even admiring, the
ingenuity of such a system, when properly conducted,
I lament, that, in almost every case
which came within my knowledge, the whole
system was disgraced, by the house either falling
in toto, or by shedding its coat of mail.
There certainly did formerly exist some mode
of mixing the ingredients, or some particular
recipe giving better proportions, or better materials,
which, after a time, formed a very capital
cement: of this, many very well known edifices
furnish ample proof. The old fort, situate within
the town of Calcutta, may be an apt quotation.
The impressions made by shots, of 24 and 32lb.
fired by Admiral Watson against its western face,
when his fleet lay within three hundred yards
of it, in the year 1755, were absolutely insignificant;
the brave admiral might have battered
for a century, without bringing down the wall.
In the year 1779, when the Company’s cloth
godown took fire, the third regiment of European
infantry, then in garrison at Fort-William,
marched out with engines, &c. to aid towards
its extinction; yet were they utterly unable to
get the iron bars loose from the masonry;
though provided with tackles, crows, axes, &c.
.bn 028.png
.pn +1
This godown, which occupied a large part of the
northerly face of the old fort, was afterwards
converted into offices; but with incredible
labor! The masonry was as hard as rock!
When this occurrence took place, the old fort
had been built about forty years; whereas, we
find that all the Company’s, or any other, buildings
which now claim that age, are of a very
different complexion! The greater part of them,
though not in a state of absolute ruin, are kept
up at an inordinate expence; while such of
them as have given up the ghost, display a crude
mass of loose, friable, and mouldering rubbish.
Nor are the ancient terraces less obdurate
than the old walls: many of these may be seen
among the ruins of cities, and towns, of which
we have scarcely any information, absolutely
retaining their places, although the beams on
which they formerly rested have been, God
only knows how many years, removed. If
these roofs had possessed any convexity, or been
constructed according to the Syrian principle,
we should have had less cause to admire their
solidity, and toughness; but, such has never
been the case with any I have seen; and which,
though certainly of no considerable dimensions,
appeared firm enough to sustain cannon of small
calibre. I have often been one of a party to
walk on such. It may, perhaps, be in place
here to describe the manner in which roofs are
.bn 029.png
.pn +1
constructed in India: I mean such as are now
under consideration. The beams are rarely
more than two feet apart; and, speaking generally,
may have a scantling of ten or eleven
inches depth, by five, or six, in width; sometimes,
though but rarely, and then only when
under the eye of science, cambered to the extent
of three or four inches; according to the
length of the timber. These joists are laid
upon the bare wall, having their ends previously
well charred; and, in some cases, smeared
with petroleum; called by the natives, ‘earth-oil.’
This is done to deter the white-ants from
making an attack upon the wood; which, in
time, they would certainly do, but for the above
precaution. The ends of the timbers are cased
in with masonry, so as to leave about four inches
all the way round, and at their bases: in order
that the timber may be removed, in case of
decay, without damaging the wall; the interval
is, however, filled up afterwards with cutcha
work; which, not being liable to adhere firmly
to the pucka wall, may be easily removed when
the joist is to be changed. When plastered over,
the whole appears uniform.
In some parts of the country, but especially
in the upper provinces, the natives cover in
their houses with flat roofs, made of clay, beat
very firm, and about a foot in thickness. This
mode of construction requires some care, but is
.bn 030.png
.pn +1
found to be extremely efficient. The walls ought
to be substantial, as should also the joists; and
the surface of the clay should be rather convex,
so as to direct the water falling on it into proper
gutters, or drains, and to prevent the building
from being damped.
Without this precaution, the heavy falls of
rain, which may be constantly expected during
three months in the year, would speedily dissolve
such tenements, with nearly as much facility
as though they were made of lump-sugar.
But when due care is taken, both to prevent,
and to stop, leaks, clay roofs are rather eligible,
than objectionable; especially in the vicinity of
bazars, (or markets,) and lines, in which fires
are frequent. Many gentlemen have adopted
the plan, some wholly, others partially, in their
bungalows, and find little or no cause to regret
their having done so.
It is, however, expedient to send up a man
now and then, to lute any cracks that may
appear in consequence of excessive heats; but,
after a season or two, the clay becomes extremely
firm, nearly equal to mortar-tarras, resisting the
various changes of temperature, and appearing
to be consolidated into a very firm mass. The
greatest inconvenience it produces, is the harbor
afforded to that inconceivably obnoxious insect,
the white-ant.
This little depredator rarely fails to take
.bn 031.png
.pn +1
advantage of whatever opportunity is offered
for the exhibition of its powers. Assembling
by the ten thousand, in a few hours they will
eat out the bottom of a deal box, perhaps an
inch in thickness, or render it a mere honeycomb.
Of fir, they are remarkably fond, as
also of mango-wood.
It seems rather peculiar that they should be
so partial to woods abounding so highly, as
these both do, in turpentine; while the presence
of a few drops of petroleum, which is imported
from Pegu, Ava, and the Arvean coast, under
the name of mutty ke tale, (earth-oil,) seems to
be a perfect preventive. Few things come amiss
to these obnoxious visitants, which every where
abound, and destroy wood, leather, cottons,
woollens, &c. Nay, a story is current, that,
some years back, they were absolutely accused
of having devoured some thousands of dollars!
Fortunately, on deeper research, it was discovered,
that they had only ate away the bottom
of the treasure-chest; and, like misers, had
buried the hard cash some feet under ground.
As ceilings are not in use in India, each joist
is neatly finished, having its lower edges rounded
off with a beading-plane. At right angles with
the joists, smaller battens, called burgahs, are
laid; three or four inches wide, by about two
or three deep, or vice versâ; these are nailed
down upon the joists at such parallel distances,
.bn 032.png
.pn +1
in general about seven or eight inches, as may
allow a large kind of tile to be laid on them.
Over the tiles they lay rubbish, rather dry,
about four or five inches deep, patting it down
gently, by the continual operation of some
dozens of men, women, and children, who,
squatting, like monkies, on their haunches, and
having batons of about a cubit in length, something
of a trowel shape, though not so obtuse,
continually beat the materials until they become
perfectly compact. The better method, which
is in more general adoption, is, instead of such
rubbish, to put on a coarser kind of mortar,
well worked up, but not very moist; which is
beat in the mode above described. After this
has been duly compacted, but before it is quite
dry, another coating of two or three inches, but
of finer materials, is put on, and beat in like
manner; then a third, perhaps only an inch
deep, of still finer materials; and, ultimately,
the whole is coated, for about half an inch
in depth, with the finest ingredients, mixed,
after being sifted through a coarse cloth, with
jaggree, and by some with peas-meal; which
the natives consider to be peculiarly valuable
in cement. This last coat is laid on with a
trowel, very firmly pressed, in order to compact
it the more, and to prevent cracking;
which will, nevertheless, always take place,
more or less, according as more or less pressure
.bn 033.png
.pn +1
and beating have been used; or, as the great
body of the tarras may be made of good or bad
materials.
All the partition-walls, dividing off the several
apartments, are necessarily of masonry; both
because the pressure from above is enormous;
and, that wood cannot be trusted, where the
white-ants could honeycomb its interior, without
being much, if at all, noticed on its surface.
These partition-walls are carried up about six
inches above the tarras roof; whereby the latter
appears to be divided into chequers, corresponding
with the several apartments. Small
channels are cut, to allow the water to pass into
the spouts, or drains; from which jars, of about
a hogshead in measurement, are filled with
water intended for table use. Some spouts are
made to extend full a yard from the wall, and,
in some instances, have canvas hoses attached, for
the purpose of leading the water into the jars; but
the more modern practice is to build pipes of
pottery within the wall, or to clamp them to it
with iron, until their lower ends, which are
crooked for the purpose, form a proper debouchure.
The latter mode, however, in very heavy
rains, subjects the walls to be damped, in consequence
of the fall of water being greater than
the pipes can instantly carry off. This may give
some idea of those deluges which at times take
place, almost instantaneously.
.bn 034.png
.pn +1
The tops of houses are invariably enclosed
with breast-parapets, or with balustrades; which
give a very finished appearance to these superb
buildings. With the exception of those ridges
formed by the continuation of the partition-walls,
the roofs afford a pleasant promenade at certain
seasons: some of them command most interesting
views. During the very hot weather, probably
from the end of April to the setting in of
the rains in the first or second week of June,
many gentlemen have their cots, (as the bed,
with all its apparatus, is usually called,) carried
to the tops of their houses, and sleep there
during the night. This may appear a very
hazardous proceeding; but, when it is considered,
that no dew, worthy of notice, falls at
that season, and, that the cots have generally
curtains, which would receive, and absorb,
what little might fall, we may, on the whole,
pronounce it to be less dangerous than should
at first be supposed. If, indeed, this were to
be done more to the southward, near the mouth
of the Hoogly river, where the immense
marshes, the ouze left by the returning tides,
and the jungles, which every where abound,
produce the most deleterious exhalations, we
should then be correct in exclaiming against
the practice: but few, very few, instances
could be adduced of any serious indisposition
having attended it; while, on the other hand,
.bn 035.png
.pn +1
it is confessed by all who have adopted it, that
the greatest refreshment ever resulted; enabling
them to rise early, divested of that most distressing
lassitude attendant upon sleeping in an
apartment absolutely communicating a febrile
sensation, and peculiarly oppressive to the
lungs.
I believe all those fatal, or injurious effects,
which have been so often adduced, by way of
caution to persons impatient of heat, have been
produced not by sleeping in an open exposure,
but in a current of air. This I cannot recommend;
on the contrary, I must vehemently censure
such a custom, as being highly dangerous:
I could quote several most melancholy cases,
arising entirely from this most injudicious conduct!
Mr. Johnson, who appears to have been
about two years in India, during which time he
was surgeon of a frigate, has published a volume,
in which there are occasionally to be found interesting
details, and sensible observations. I
shall offer to my readers some remarks he has
made, at page 269, that bear closely on the
subject under discussion. He says; ‘Europeans,
in general, on their first arrival in India,
are prepossessed with the idea, that sleeping at
night in the open air must be a very dangerous
practice; but, in the course of a short residence
on shore, they get rid of this prejudice, by observing
most of the natives, and many of the
.bn 036.png
.pn +1
Europeans, sleeping on open terraces, and in
verandas, not only with impunity, but as a
preservative against the debilitating effects of a
hot climate. But on board-ships, where they
have not an opportunity of seeing, or of reflecting
on, these circumstances, they frequently
adhere, for a considerable time after their arrival
on the station, to the established regulations,
of making every man sleep in his proper berth:
and suffering none to lie about upon the decks;
a system, in my opinion, very prejudicial to the
health of ships’ companies in India. At sea,
indeed, it is not of so much consequence,
where the watch on deck always gives sufficient
room to those below; but it is in harbours,
and road-steds, where the air is much hotter
than at sea, the impolicy of the measure becomes
manifest.’—And again, page 270, ‘We
will suppose, that every man, when he turns
into his hammock, falls fast asleep in a few
minutes; which, by the by, is not always the
case. About eleven o’clock, however, I will
venture to say, he wakes in a deluge of perspiration,
panting with the heat and rarefied air;
upon which he turns out, and goes upon deck,
for the purpose, as he terms it, of getting a
mouthful of fresh air; anathematizing, as he
ascends, the infernal heat of the climate! Under
pretence of going to the head, he gets upon the
forecastle; when the cool breeze from the shore
.bn 037.png
.pn +1
immediately chills him, and gives a sudden check
to his perspiration.’ All this I have personally
experienced, both on board-ship and on shore;
and I make no scruple of saying, that, in lieu of
being injured by sleeping out on a chabootah, in
a well-covered cot, my whole frame has been
braced, my rest has been sound and refreshing,
and I have avoided all the miseries inseparably
attendant upon seeking repose in a close, muggy
atmosphere; where thirst and irritation create
perpetual restlessness, banish sleep, and cause
that relaxation and debility which render each
subsequent day burthensome as its preceding
night has been distressing!
In a former page, I observed, that boarded
floors were almost unknown in India: various
reasons have, doubtless, combined to explode
them; firstly, the depredations of the white-ant;
secondly, the perpetual danger of their
warping; and, thirdly, the difficulty of rendering
the sounds of foot-steps less audible. This
last may appear trivial; but, where so many
menials, &c., are ever moving about in various
parts of a house, and that, too, with little ceremony,
though, it is true, they are all bare-footed,
it would prove extremely inconvenient at those
times when the family might retire to rest during
the heat of the day. About twenty-five or
thirty years back, all the stairs were of masonry;
but, of late years, wooden ones have been introduced.
.bn 038.png
.pn +1
These, being made to rest on strong
beams, obvious in every part, save where they
enter the walls, may be considered as tolerably
safe from the white-ants; certainly they are much
neater, and more easily kept in order. All the
joists, in every house, are either painted, or
tarred; the latter has a very unpleasant, indeed,
a mean appearance; and is not often practised:
for the most part, white, with a very slight cast
of blue, to preserve it from fading, is adopted.
Some paint the beaded, or moulded, edges of
the door pannels, also the rounded corners of
the joists, with some delicate color; such as a
very light sky-blue, a very light verdigris-green,
or a lilac; and, by way of conformity, ornament
the mouldings of the wall pannels with similar
tints. In the upper provinces, it is a very prevalent
fashion to color the pannels with some
native ochres, of beautiful hues, leaving the
mouldings, cornices, &c. white. These mouldings,
&c. are all done by means of trowels shaped
for the purpose, and not by moulds, or stamps;
of course, what with want of device, and want of
activity, such ornaments may be reckoned
among that variety of tedious labors of which
Blacky is extremely enamoured. Yet, in the
execution of such matters, he will display great
ingenuity, consummate patience, and, often,
great delicacy: but, with respect to design,
taste, composition, perspective, consistency,
.bn 039.png
.pn +1
and harmony; in all these, whether in drawing,
sculpture, or in any mode of representation, he
will prove himself to be completely ignoramus.
Let the former apology be pleaded; namely,
that, in every branch, the Indian mechanic is
called upon, after, perhaps, only a few days of
observation, or, at least, with so little practice
as would, among us, be considered rather an
objection than a qualification, to perform that
which we judge to be unattainable, except by
the application of several years, closely attached
to one individual intention. Therefore, in lieu
of condemning their operations, we should rather
regard them with admiration; for, I will
venture to assert, that we should not fail to
wonder at one of our own countrymen, who,
perhaps at rather an advanced age, without previous
education, without the possibility of reference
to books, or to public institutions,
should undertake to do that with a hatchet, or
any other gross implement, which persons regularly
brought up in the respective profession
should assert to be impracticable, unless duly
provided with benches, vices, and tools, of exquisite
formation, out of number. The Asiatic
has the bare soil for his bench, his toes are his
vice, and his implements usually amount to no
more than a small adze, a saw, with, perhaps, a
chisel, and a pair of uncouth pincers!
.bn 040.png
.pn +1
The same operations which I have described
to be necessary for the construction of a tarras
roof, are equally so for the floors in every part of
the house; but, unless the basement stands very
high, so as to allow of water houses, &c. underneath
the ground-floor, it is usual to have the
latter flued, by means of narrow channels, or
air-conduits, of about four inches deep, and as
many wide; so as to be covered with bricks of
an ordinary size: these flues are made in parallel
lines, at, perhaps, a foot or more asunder, and
pass entirely under the house, in both directions,
having their several apertures covered by small
iron grates, for the purpose of keeping out rats,
snakes, &c.; which would else find admirable
asylums within these intersecting channels.
The lower tarrases are thus kept thoroughly dry
by the flues, which, of course, give ventilation
to every part under the floor. Where bricks
are scarce, which is often the case, on account
of their never being made for general sale, except
at public stations and great cities, and then
of a very small size, it is common to build the
ground tarras upon inverted pots; each being
capable of containing about three pecks, or a
bushel. These pots may be had, in any quantity,
all over the country; generally at the low rate of
a farthing, or, at the utmost, a halfpenny, each.
The pots are ranged upon the ground, within
.bn 041.png
.pn +1
the area formed by the walls, side by side, but
not quite in contact, each resting on its mouth,
which consists generally of a rim, projecting
about three or four inches from the body of the
vessel, which is nearly spherical. The loosest
sand that can be had, or, in its absence, any
dry rubbish, is then thrown in, so as to fill up
all the intervals, and to cover the pots, about
four inches in depth. This surface being levelled,
another stratum of pots is added, if judged
necessary; the whole process of filling up is
similar in both, and the tarras is laid in the
usual manner on the levelled surface.
By far the greater portion of the subsoil
throughout Bengal, at least, in that wide expanse
reaching from Gogra to Dacca, on the
north-east, and from the Soane, along the plains
at the foot of the hills, to the debouchure of the
Hoogly, (which, together, form the limits of
our richest, and most populous, purgunnahs,
or districts,) is a loose, gritty sand, very like
what farmers term a lush; which, in a few
places, receives a strong red tint from the ferruginous
mountains, every where to be seen
along either boundary. This extreme looseness
of the subsoil creates a most peremptory necessity
for securing the foundations of weighty
buildings, by every possible means; and, in the
sinking of wells, is often found to present the
most formidable obstacles.
.bn 042.png
.pn +1
Under such circumstances, it must appear
self-evident, that those large mansions forming
the bulk of Calcutta, by which I mean that portion
raised, and inhabited, by Europeans; together
with the several garden-houses, and the
numerous edifices on a large scale erected by
the natives, especially their places of worship,
which are most ponderously constructed; all
these necessarily require to be very firmly
founded: nor can too much attention be paid to
carrying off the water, which pours down from
the tops of the houses; lest the bases should be
sapped, and very serious injury be entailed.
With this intention, almost every compound,
or enclosed area, is either laid with pan-tiles,
or is well coated with soorky, in the same manner
as the roads; while, in many instances, the
junction of the wall with the level of the area is
concealed, and secured, by a talus, blending
with the building, at about a foot or more above
that level.
With respect to bungalows, or any other buildings
coming under the designation of ‘temporary,’
their foundations are usually very shallow.
These are, for the most part, raised a foot or
two from the surrounding level; and, as their
inner walls, that often run from sixteen to twenty
feet in height, are well secured by the verandas,
which likewise preserve the precinct, for
full twelve or fourteen feet, from being softened
.bn 043.png
.pn +1
by the rains, very shallow foundations are
deemed sufficient. The surrounding parapet
which limits, while it raises, the veranda, is
usually of burnt-brick, cemented with good
mortar, and plastered over with the same; but
the whole of the residue of bricklayers’ work is
such as has been already explained. The
verandas of bungalows are sustained either by
strong wooden posts, or by pillars of masonry;
their intervals are filled up with jaumps, before
described, which may be raised at pleasure, to
any angle, including about 10°, or 15°, above
the horizontal; or they may be suffered to hang
perpendicularly against the exterior faces of the
pillars. In tempestuous weather, and especially
during those violent squalls called ‘north-westers,’
in consequence of their usually either commencing
on, or veering round to, that quarter,
it will be found necessary to place the bamboo
props, whereby the jaumps are usually elevated,
against their exterior sides; by which means
the jaump is pressed to the pillar, and becomes
greatly exempted from the danger of being blown
away; which, nevertheless, frequently is its fate,
although its weight may be full a cwt. and a half,
or even two cwt.
The force of these north-westers is next to
incredible! I recollect one in particular, which,
in November 1787, tore up an immense tree,
called the ‘Barrackpore Beacon,’ on account of its
.bn 044.png
.pn +1
being situated at a point where it could be seen
from Duckansore, along a beautiful reach of the
Hoogly river. This fine piece of timber measured
nearly twenty feet in girth, and branched
out in the most luxuriant manner, reaching to
full seventy or eighty feet in height: it was torn
up by its roots, though some of the ramifications
were much thicker than my own body, leaving
an excavation of not less than 15,000 cubic
feet.
When stationed at Hazary-Bang, in the
Ramghur district, my bungalow was, I firmly
believe, saved from falling by mere accident.
It had become fashionable to construct fire places
in our halls, running up the chimnies, so as to
pierce the thatches immediately below the summit
of that wall in which the fire-place was
made, and which served as the front face of the
chimney. Cutting through the wall, to make a
proper opening wherein to set the grate, I found
that, in lieu of being firm, as it should have been,
the whole cut like so much butter. In consequence
of this discovery, I hastened the finishing
of the stove, which, in a short time, aired the
room, and completely dried the walls; but, not
before they began to display very unequivocal
tokens of what would have taken place, but
for my very fortunate adoption of the whim then
in vogue.
It is remarkable, that the bungalow stood on
.bn 045.png
.pn +1
a gentle declivity, from which the superficial
water was well drained; but, the soil was proverbially
spongy, and retained every shower,
much the same as chalk, but without its good
qualities: thus, notwithstanding the floors, (or
tarrases,) were full two feet above the surrounding
level, my habitation would, I am well convinced,
have subsided; burying every inhabitant
under its ruins! Probably, that fatal
moment would have accorded with the height
of some north-wester; to whose fury the catastrophe
would, though erroneously, have been
imputed.
The verandas of bungalows are generally
allotted to the accommodation of servants of all
descriptions; and, except where, as in Calcutta,
a separate lodging-room is provided, serve for
the home of whatever cahars, or bearers, may
be employed. These have each their mat, on
which they sleep, forming a pillow of any g’hettry,
or bundle of cloaths, and covering themselves
with their quilts, &c.: blankets being
but very little in use among domestics of any
description. When a gentleman has company,
the side-board is usually set out in the veranda,
where also the several guests’ hookahs are prepared;
and, in rainy weather, their water
cooled. All servants come upon being called
only; there being no bells hung in any part of
the country, and very, very few even of hand-bells
.bn 046.png
.pn +1
to be seen. The common call, Qui hi?
(meaning ‘who is there?’) often rouzes a dozen
of the slumbering crew, though it is occasionally
repeated, with some vociferation too,
before one will stir. Although to many bungalows
there are abundance of out-offices, some of
which may have been built for the reception of
palanquins, and especially of a gig, (there called
a buggy,) few persons allow either their mahanahs,
or their boçhahs, to be kept in such places,
as they would be subject to various unpleasant
purposes, whereby their interior especially would
often be soiled: this objection acts likewise in
some measure towards the common practice of
retaining the gig, as well as the palanquin, within
the veranda; the latter is easily lifted in and out
by the bearers, but the former requires that a
ramp, or slope, should be made, up and down
which the syce (or groom) draws it with facility.
All conveyances, when housed, are covered
with a double cloth, usually made of karwah.
Throughout Calcutta the doors are pannelled,
and have, generally, handsome brass mountings,
with mortice locks; the windows are well
glazed; and, in many instances, the rooms are
laid with superb carpets, either of European,
Persian, or Mirzapore manufacture: the two
latter are generally made of silk; exhibiting not
only rich patterns, but the most brilliant colors,
at least equal to any made at our manufactories.
.bn 047.png
.pn +1
The floors, or, more properly speaking, the tarrases,
are almost invariably covered with a matting
made of a species of rush, which possesses
considerable firmness and pliancy. This, after
being duly cleansed from fibres, &c. is made up
into bundles, about a cubit in length, and nearly
the same in girth, in which state it is well soaked:
from these bundles the mat-makers, who
are usually of the Cunjoor tribe, weave the mats
upon a kind of woof made of twine, but perfectly
concealed by the rushes. Some of these
mats are made plain; while others are in various
stripes, or in chequers. With this manufacture
a room of any size may be fitted; the work being
either done on the spot, or at the houses of the
persons employed; the color is generally that of
faded straw; though, sometimes, red or black
rushes, dyed for the purpose, are introduced.
For the accommodation of persons residing in
parts where they cannot have floors fitted with
entire mats, long strips, of about a yard wide,
and four or five yards long, are sold in almost
every great bazar (or market). These require to
be sewed side by side, the same as our Scotch
carpeting; but, exclusive of that disadvantage,
are not so eligible; both because they are less
carefully made, and that, in almost every instance,
they are manufactured from refuse materials.
In the upper provinces, where the kudjoor
.bn 048.png
.pn +1
(or date-tree) abounds, a very passable kind of
matting is made of its leaves; it is true, this
is not so durable, nor so handsome, nor so even,
as that sort just described; owing to the coarseness
of the materials, it is rather subject to catch
the feet of chairs; add to this, the danger of
fire from hookahs, &c.: all these circumstances
limit the use of the kudjoor mats to very ordinary
purposes; or, at the least, to laying down
in such rooms as are to be wholly or partially
carpeted.
Mats are likewise made, in every part of the
country, from green bamboos; which, being
split into very thin laths, of about half an inch,
or less, in width, answer the same purpose as
the foregoing; these are, however, very uncomfortable,
and harbour centipedes by the hundred:
the kudjoor mats partake of that objection,
but not to the same extent. Mats, if we
may so call them, are likewise made by laying
down rattans, and stringing them together with
strips of their own bark, the same as is done in
making the seerky used in thatching; but this
species is very rare: indeed, I believe only a few
were ever seen in Calcutta, and they were said
to have been brought by the Dutch from Malacca,
whence great numbers of rattans are yearly
imported. The price of the best rush-mats may
be taken at about a rupee per square yard; that
of the mats in strips at from four annas (8½ d.) to
.bn 049.png
.pn +1
eight annas (17d.); but the kudjoor, and bamboo
kinds, can only be computed by the demand
for materials, and the prices of labor, locally:
probably, taking all things into consideration,
we may estimate a square yard of either at two
annas, or about 4¼d. A very beautiful species
of mat is made in some parts of the country, but
especially in the south-eastern districts, about
Dacca and Luckypore, from a kind of reedy
grass, of which the rind, being pared off very
thin, and trimmed to about the eighth of an inch
in width, is wove into mats, rarely exceeding
seven or eight feet in length, by about four feet
in width. These are peculiarly slippery, whence
they are designated ‘seekul-putty,’ (i.e. polished
sheets); their color resembles that of common
horn, and their prices are generally from two to
six rupees per piece; according to their fineness,
and to the state of the markets. The principal
uses of the seekul-putty, are, to be laid under the
lower sheet of a bed, thereby to keep the body
cool; which is certainly effected to a great degree
by this device, by its remarkably slippery
surface: some few pillows for couches are likewise
covered therewith, and I have seen it employed
in making covers for mahogany tables;
to which it is well adapted, on account of its
repelling dust: in such case, it ought to have
all the joinings well taped, and to be lined with
blanket, or with karwah, &c. properly quilted.
.bn 050.png
.pn +1
Exclusive of the carpets before mentioned,
and which are very high priced, a manufacture
of satrinjes is carried on at Mirzapore, and in
many other parts. These serve all the purposes
of carpets, but have no plush; being in that
particular very similar to our Scotch carpeting,
but, at the same time, very dissimilar in respect
to pattern. The satrinje is nothing more than
a very large colored sheet, in which, except for
about a cubit’s breadth all around, the whole
is divided into bars, or stripes, usually from two
to six inches wide, proportioned to the extent
of the fabric. The principal colors in these
carpets are crimson for a ground, with bars of
deep, or light red; or blue grounds, with white,
yellow, or tawny bars; or green grounds, with
deeper, or lighter green, or crimson, or orange
bars; or any of these, vice versâ. The common
price of a woollen satrinje, may be from twelve
annas (i.e. 3/4 of a rupee) to three rupees per
square yard; according to fineness, substance,
color, demand, &c.
Of cotton satrinjes, the price rarely exceeds a
rupee, or a rupee and a quarter, for the same
extent; these, however, wash admirably. It is
no uncommon thing to see a satrinje of full
twenty by thirty feet; and this, too, made upon
nothing more than a bamboo roller, round which
the work gradually collects, as the threads are
crossed, by passing the warp-lines, alternately
.bn 051.png
.pn +1
over and under the woof-lines, in regular
changes!
Cheeks, or screens, to keep out the glare,
are made in a similar manner. These simple,
yet most comfortable, addenda to our Indian
habitations, are formed of bamboo wires, (if I
may use the term,) from four to six feet in
length, and about the thickness of a very large
knitting-needle, or, perhaps, of a crow-quill. A
thin, clean-worked lath, of the same material,
is put at the top and bottom.
Many cheeks are made of bamboo wires, previously
painted either green, or reddish brown,
but generally the former. These require no
particular care, further than keeping them separate,
as they dry; which is usually effected
by laying them upon two rows of bricks, or
against a wall, or upon scattered straw, when
the weather is calm. When cheeks are intended
to represent any pattern, such as
birds on branches, or Indian deities, &c., the
whole of the wires are laid with their respective
ends on two boards, over which two others are
placed perfectly parallel, and even, so as to
press the ends of the wires, and to prevent their
being easily displaced. A pattern, being cut
out on paper of the required size, is fastened
down upon the wires, and its outline every
where distinctly marked upon them; after which
it is worked in on the former ground, say a green,
.bn 052.png
.pn +1
with brown for branches, a deeper green for
the leaves, and red, yellow, &c., for the birds:
the whole is then left to dry. When ready for
use, the cheek-wallah (or maker) fixes his apparatus
close to the top, and, taking each wire
in succession, fastens it down in its proper place,
being guided by two lateral lines, as they are
handed to him by an urchin, perhaps not more
than three or four years of age! In this way
the representation is preserved.
The neatest patterned cheeks come from China;
but the Bengallee artist is getting fast forward,
and bids fair to put a stop to the importation:
it is usual to have the whole cheek bound, all
around, either with a light cotton tape, of about
three or four inches broad, or with red, or blue,
karwah. At the top of each cheek, generally,
a piece of circular leather is attached, two being
sewed together, though on different sides of
the wires; to these the cotton cords, usually
white, or red and white, or blue and white,
about an inch in circumference, and each a full
yard in length, are sewed: their use is, to tie
up the cheek, when rolled towards the door-plate,
at such times as it is not wanted. Each
end of the top lath has similar pieces of leather
sewed on, for the cords by which the
cheek is to be suspended.
It is understood, that white cheeks are preferable;
both because they keep out the glare
.bn 053.png
.pn +1
much better, and as they render the interior
less distinguishable to any spectator from without:
consequently, they contribute most to
coolness, and to privacy.
I believe it would be impossible to find any
house inhabited by an European of respectability,
in any part of Calcutta, which should
prove to be destitute of proper doors, of pannelled
wood, or of windows, at least, furnished
with Venetians, if not with glass sashes. Whether
for appearance, convenience, or real utility,
certainly there cannot be any thing equal to
glass, the use of which is now become so general,
that almost every bungalow in the upper
provinces, unless merely built as a shelter for a
few months, is provided with glass; some, perhaps,
only partially, but a great majority throughout.
Were it not that this most agreeable improvement
were attainable on what may be
called very moderate terms, the great number
of serious drawbacks it has to encounter, would
assuredly cause its exportation to the East to
be very limitted. The principal objections to
its use, are, 1stly, the difficulty of getting glass
cut to fit the sashes; 2dly, the aptness of even
the best seasoned wood to warp, so as to cause
the panes to fly; 3dly, the difficulty which frequently
exists of getting glass at all; especially
of the larger sizes.
As a balance to this, we find, that this brittle
.bn 054.png
.pn +1
commodity, after undergoing all the risques
attendant upon shipping, and landing, together
with all the dangers of the seas, and much occasional
rough usage after being consigned to
the up-country trader, can usually be sold at
Futty-Ghur, or Lucknow, which are each distant
about a thousand miles, by water, from
Calcutta, at the following prices: panes of 8
by 11 inches, at about twenty rupees per coorge,
(or score,); 10 by 14, at about twenty-six rupees;
of 12 by 16, at about thirty-two; of 15
by 20, at about forty; of 18 by 26, at about
fifty; and of 20 by 30, at about sixty rupees.
These prices give little more than cent. per cent.
upon the wholesale prices of London. What
with the necessity for making those panes and
sashes, which are exposed to the sun, very firm,
as well as from a due attention to economy in
so expensive an article, we generally see, in the
upper provinces, the panes laid transversely, instead
of upright; and only one row of such
panes in each frame; the wood-work being made
very broad, so as to occupy a large space. The
light thus admitted, is found fully adequate to
every common purpose; the atmosphere being,
for full eight months out of the twelve, perfectly
clear; and there being rarely any buildings
to debar the full enjoyment of that blessing:
besides, that great exposure to an unclouded
sky, which may in England be deemed highly
.bn 055.png
.pn +1
advantageous, would, in India, prove objectionable;
by admitting so forcible a glare as must
give more uneasiness than pleasure.
When glass either cannot be had; or, that,
owing to some speculator having monopolized,
the price is considered too high, it is not uncommon
to see windows furnished with plates
of talc; which may be obtained, in almost any
quantity, at the several cities, especially towards
the frontiers; very extensive dealings
being carried on in this article, by persons resident
chiefly at Lucknow, Benares, and
Patna, who import it from Thibet, and the
countries on the north of the Punjab, or Seik
territory, in masses, often as large as a quartern
loaf. The principal intention of such traffic is
for the supply of that fine powder, used in the
Hindu holiday, called hooly, which may generally
be viewed as the carnival of that sect.
The masses of talc commonly sell for about a
rupee and a half, or even up to two rupees per
seer (of about two pounds avoirdupoise): when
good, it is of a pure pearl color, but it has, ordinarily,
either a yellowish, or a faint blue cast:
by means of proper tools, this mineral may be
split into very thin leaves, which often present
smooth surfaces, but are apt to have little scaly
blisters, that greatly deteriorate their value.
However, a seer of talc, that splits well, will
sometimes yield a dozen or more panes, of about
.bn 056.png
.pn +1
12 inches by 9, or of 10 by 10; and thus, according
to the form of the lump; which can
only be split in the direction of its laminæ.
These panes are so far diaphanous as to allow
ordinary objects to be seen at about twenty or
thirty yards tolerably distinct; and, of course,
present an excellent substitute for glass.
I am surprized that the very simple process
whereby talc may be vitrified, has not encouraged
some ingenious person to establish a manufactory
for that purpose. When combined with
alkaline salt, (every where attainable in India,)
it is fusible in a strong heat, and forms a transparent,
handsome, greenish-yellow glass. If
equal portions of talc and of chalk be melted
together, with one-fourth part of borax, (the
soohaugah, or tincal, so abundant throughout
the East,) the mixture will produce a fine pellucid,
greenish glass, of considerable lustre and
hardness; gypsous earths, (which, though not
brought into use, are supposed to abound in
some parts of Bahar, and of the upper provinces,)
may be advantageously substituted for chalk,
whence the result will be a rich, pellucid, yellow
glass, of equal brightness and durability.
Speaking of chalk, I must remark, that very
large quantities are occasionally sent to India,
notwithstanding some of the hills at the back of
Raje Mahal abound therewith. I understood,
many years ago, from an old friend, who was
.bn 057.png
.pn +1
quarter-master of a regiment stationed at Monghyr,
distant about forty miles from the former
place, that, in consequence of a scarcity of musquet
flints, he had sent people to the Chalk Hills
of Raje Mahal, whence he had obtained a boat-load
that answered admirably. In reply to my
questions regarding the chalk, he informed me it
was very coarse. But he forgot, that, by dissolving
it in a large quantity of water, and allowing
the rubbish to sink, the finer particles would be
for a while suspended; and, on being poured
off, would, after repeated washings in this manner,
yield the purest whiting. It really appears
surprizing, that those chalk hills should remain
unnoticed; and, that even the lime-burners
should neglect to take advantage of their being
so advantageously situated among wildernesses
of fuel, and within a mile of the great channel
of the Ganges! That the Company should
ever send out whiting, or put themselves to the
expence of millions upon millions of gun and
pistol flints, when they possess such a quarry,
(of which the extent is not known,) appears
highly inconsistent with that economy so much
and so properly studied. If it be argued,
that some impolicy might exist in shewing the
natives how to provide themselves with flints;
the answer is very easy; for the gun-smiths of
Monghyr are fully apprized of the whole process.
.bn 058.png
.pn +1
But, surely the chalk cannot be accused of the
same dangerous tendency! To say the least,
government might, with great advantage, cause
all the lime required for their own works to be
made from it; imposing a price upon all that
might be dug by merchants, or others; as they
do at their stone quarries, near Chunar-Ghur,
&c. My readers will, at all events, discover
that a very useful glass might be made in India,
the duty on which would produce a much
larger sum than the whole amount of profits
accruing to our exporters. It is, indeed, a well-known
fact, that the captains of Indiamen take
out window glass more with the view to making
up a general assortment, than from any
great advantage arising from its sale to the European
shop-keepers, &c. In time of peace
they are invariably undersold by foreign traders;
who carry out glass of an inferior quality, which
sells to a certain extent; and is often rather
sought, than rejected, on account of its greenish
hue, which is found to soften the light
considerably; especially in exposed situations.
The natives do, occasionally, make a weak,
greenish, and blistered glass into caraboys, or
great bottles for rose-water, and into lesser ones,
such as the gundies, or itinerant perfumers, use;
but this is on a very small scale, and chiefly
supplied from broken tumblers, shades, &c., of
.bn 059.png
.pn +1
European manufacture. There are persons at
Patna, who have men constantly employed in
purchasing broken glass, of every description,
from the servants of Europeans, and in collecting
such fragments as may be thrown out among the
ordinary rubbish.
It must occasionally happen, that neither glass,
nor talc, can be readily obtained; in which case,
the best mode is to make light frames, and to
pannel, or fill them up with wax-cloth, neatly
nailed on. This is an admirable substitute, not
only keeping out wind, rain, and dust, but, in
the cold season, preserving the warmth of rooms,
yet admitting sufficient light for ordinary purposes:
I have very frequently resorted to this
expedient, and even to frames of oiled paper; all
I had to regret was, that they debarred my seeing
what passed abroad. To a person just arrived
from Europe, such would appear a most distressing
privation; but, after experiencing a few seasons
behind tatties, without being able to enjoy
the light during the whole day, and that for
months together, such recluseness would scarcely
be considered worthy of notice: so true it is,
that we gradually become habituated to the loss
of ordinary enjoyments, of faculties, and even
of civil and religious liberty!!!
Although bungalows have not any ceilings of
plaster, they are rendered inconceivably neat
.bn 060.png
.pn +1
within, by means of a double sheet, made of
very coarse cotton cloth, called guzzy; of which
tents are usually constructed. These sheets are
fitted to the several apartments respectively, are
bound with strong tape around, and have, besides,
various tapes forming an union cross of eight
limbs, or rays, all meeting in the centre. As
the cornices commonly project near a foot,
abundance of space is left for lacing the sheet
(called the chandny,) to battens, nailed to pegs
built in the wall: these battens being firmly
secured all the way round, about an inch above
the cornice, admit the sheet to be strained very
tight, so as to bag very little, if at all, in the
centre. Some white-wash their chandnies, and
take so much pains in establishing a firm appearance,
as to render them very similar to well
made ceilings. Without this last mode of preparation,
music has no effect in a bungalow;
indeed, at the best, the most powerful instrument
is heard under very great disadvantages,
owing to the number of apertures, the satringes,
mats, couch and table covers, &c., all which
deaden the tones considerably.
Those who are very particular in whatever
relates to their furniture, &c., have their verandas
lined in the same manner as their apartments,
giving them a finished appearance; but,
in such exposed situations the cloths are apt to
.bn 061.png
.pn +1
collect considerable quantities of dust, which is
perpetually set in motion by the shaking of the
cloths when acted upon by the wind: on this
account seerky appears to me far preferable as a
lining for verandas.
The usual expedient, when doors of any
description are not made, is to provide purdahs,
made of karwah, (or guzzy,) or both mixed in
perpendicular stripes of eight or ten inches wide
each: some, especially those who are stationary,
make their purdahs of shalloon, perpet, or very
coarse broad-cloth, in the following manner.
The cloth is made into two sheets of equal
dimensions, say nine feet by six, and having
strong tapes, perhaps five or seven in number,
inserted cross-wise between them: these tapes
are double. The whole circumference of the
purdah is then sewed very neatly, and bound
with tape, corresponding with the color of the
cloth, and the ends of the tapes are also bound
by means of leather, covered with the same
materials. Between every pair of tapes, a bamboo,
of a small kind, but very tough, is introduced;
or, perhaps, a stout lath made from a
bamboo of the large sort. These sticks, or laths,
serve to keep the cloth stretched out, and when
the purdah is suspended, much in the same
manner as has been explained for the mounting
of a cheek, lie horizontally; thus preventing
the wind from blowing in the purdah.
.bn 062.png
.pn +1
It is observed as a general rule, always to
make a purdah full a foot wider on each side
than the door way it is to conceal; also to carry
it a foot above the door plate, and to have a
portion, about a foot in depth, without any lath,
at the bottom, so as to trail a little on the
ground. Those purdahs which are made of
karwah, or other cotton stuff, are generally
quilted with cotton, or are composed of many
folds, or have coarse blankets inlaid between
their outer coatings. The last is by far the
most effectual, most neat, and most durable
mode of construction; but, at the best, purdahs
are a very indifferent make-shift; and, though
often, from necessity, applied to windows, are by
no means answerable to their intention. Their
best use is certainly to deaden sounds; hence,
they are advantageously suspended outside the
doors of sleeping, or other retired apartments;
when, by closing the doors, privacy and
quiet may usually be effected. The presence
of a purdah usually indicates the exclusion of
males; and that the apartments, within that
entrance, are devoted to the accommodation of
ladies; except when rolled up, and tied, as
has been explained in regard to cheeks.
The best timber for building, in whatever
branch, is the sygwam, or teak; but its dearness
prevents its general use, especially since naval
architecture has been so much an object of speculation
.bn 063.png
.pn +1
at Calcutta. However, it can generally
be purchased at about a rupee, or a rupee and a
quarter, per foot: making its utmost price about
three shillings and three-pence. Those who
build houses of the first class, rarely fail to lay
all their tarrases upon teak joists; both because
they possess superior strength, and that they
are far less likely to be attacked by the white-ants.
This has been attributed to the quantity
of tannin contained in teak-wood, which some
have asserted to be a perfect preventive, or antidote;
but, after having seen those noxious
insects devouring shoes and boots by wholesale,
I can never bring myself to accord with such an
opinion. There is, in teak-wood, evidently
some property, hitherto occult, that repels the
white-ant, at least for some years, but which is
doubtless diminished by exposure to the air; as
we find that very old teak-timbers become
rather more subject to depredation, than new
ones. The greater part of the teak used in Bengal,
and at Madras, is imported from the Pegu
coast, in immense beams, and in spars, planks,
&c., of all sizes. It is by no means unusual to
see the squared timbers measuring from forty,
to fifty, feet in length, and averaging from
fifteen to twenty inches in diameter. Here is
food for our dock-yards!
It would certainly be attended with considerable
.bn 064.png
.pn +1
benefit to the public, if that occult principle,
or matter, which apparently exists in the
teak-wood, enabling it to resist both the white-ant,
and the river-worm, could be ascertained;
it might be possible to impregnate, or to saturate,
other timber in a similar manner. This is
the more essential, because we have abundant
proofs that mere hardness does not deter those
voracious insects, which are found at times
even upon the lignum vitæ! But the principal
object, so far as relates to naval purposes, is,
that the teak-wood certainly is, in a great measure,
devoid of the gallic, or any other, acid; or,
if such is present, it assuredly must be in a very
limitted portion; since the nails driven into
teak-wood are never corroded so as to decay the
surrounding wood, and to liberate it from confinement.
To this decay, called ‘iron-sickness,’
are attributed many losses of ships, supposed to
have foundered at sea, in consequence of planks
starting; which must often happen when the
wood embracing a nail is destroyed by the acid,
or by the action of salt water upon the iron.
In repairing ships built of oak, many nails are
found perfectly insulated, by the wood having
been rotted, and fallen away; which has never
been the case with vessels built of teak.
The generality of apartments being large,
the halls measuring perhaps from thirty to forty
.bn 065.png
.pn +1
feet in length, and from sixteen to twenty-four
in width, and other rooms in proportion, it is
evident that very substantial, as well as long,
timbers must be requisite to support their flat
roofs; for, with a few exceptions, truss-roofs are
not in use. The mode introduced by Mr. Lyon,
the Company’s architect, at Berhampore, certainly
contributed greatly to reduce the quantity
of timber in a roof, but it rendered it absolutely
necessary that every timber should be perfectly
sound. That gentleman, whose professional
skill, and excellent social qualities, demand an
ample tribute, exploded burgahs, (or smaller
battens,) from the roofs he constructed; and,
in their stead, threw arches from the centre of
one to the centre of the other timber; so that
the intervals between the timbers were to appearance
grooved, or fluted, longitudinally. This,
however, was barely distinguishable, the arches
being very elliptic; rarely, indeed, including
more than an angle of six degrees, on a circle
having full ten feet of radius.
Hence, it will be seen, that the joists were
tolerably close, but their diameters admitted
of considerable reduction, on account of the
continuity of such a series of arches, which
gave great solidity; and, by their mutual pressure,
admitted that a joist should be freely
removed, without in the least affecting the
roof.
.bn 066.png
.pn +1
The houses built and inhabited by the natives,
invariably have flat roofs. In these the apartments
are, for the most part, extremely narrow,
and dark. The verandas, where any are made,
consist of arcaded fronts, invariably indented
gothic; and have pillars, either of an hexagonal,
or of an octagonal, form, resting on short pedestals,
while the arch may be seen to break off
rather too suddenly from the shaft, which continues
up to baisez-mur, (or bassimere, as our
architects vulgarly call it,) and divides the upper
part into various compartments, all of which are
ornamented with a profusion of carved work.
In almost every Hindostanee building, of this
description, there will be seen an odd number
of arches, to which others in the main part of
the edifice generally correspond. The chambers,
if so we may call them, are taken off from the
ends of the halls, by similar arcades; each of
which, as well as those of the exterior, is furnished
with a purdah. These narrow slips have
no windows, or, at the best, only small loop
holes. The intention of such oven-like recesses
would perplex an European unacquainted with
Asiatic customs, but he would soon find that, in
the cold season, such are peculiarly warm, and
that, during those months in which the glare is
obnoxious, they remain cooler than such as
admit more light. Almost every house is furnished
with some means of ascending to the
.bn 067.png
.pn +1
chut, (or flat tarras-roof,) whereon the natives
often pass the evening, causing the heat to be
first abated, by means of several pots of water,
which throw up a steam fully indicating the
temperature at which the tarras had arrived.
The natives are not partial to upper-roomed
houses in general; though they affect to pride
themselves greatly in the possession of doomaulahs,
that is, of houses having a second
floor: it seems that ostentation is the reason of
this predilection in favor of ground floors,
whereon all their attendants, &c., may be seen
from the level of their compounds (or enclosed
areas). The stairs, where any exist, (for sometimes
a very mean boarded ladder is made to
answer that intention,) are narrow, steep, and
unsafe: these are almost always built of solid
masonry, as far up as the first turn, (or landing
place,) after which they commonly consist of
small bricks laid edgeways in lime mortar,
supported by stout timbers, placed at a proper
angle, and resting on the proximate joist of
the upper floor. In every Hindostanee house,
the doors are very low, and often are made
to open into a long arcaded veranda, running
the whole length of the interior, much the
same as in our inns; while, in the front, or
towards the road, a hanging balcony is sometimes
made, supported on continuations of the
joists, of which the extremities are carved
.bn 068.png
.pn +1
into grotesque forms; such as the heads of
alligators, or of tigers, or of serpents, and not
infrequently of little human figures, whose size
and squat position strongly put us in mind of a
f[oe]tus in utero.
Saul-wood is used to an immense extent, both
in buildings, and in the construction of ships,
but is not to be compared, either for toughness,
strength, resistance against insects, or durability,
with teak. Its price is much in favor of general
service, to which its great size, and admirable
straightness, are considerable, and valuable recommendations;
but it is extremely apt to
crack, though not to snap; especially when exposed
to the weather. There is something very
peculiar in saul-wood; since it is seen to warp,
even after having been employed in bulk for
many years, riving into large fissures longitudinally:
the white-ants also devour it with avidity.
Mr. Lyon, already noticed, when he was building
the General Hospital at Berhampore, caused
an immense copper trough to be made, in which
he boiled the beams intended for that edifice:
some were boiled in pure water, others with
tannin, and some with arsenic; under the hope
both of seasoning the timber, and of giving it a
repellant, or preservative quality. This ingenious,
and highly praise-worthy experiment, was
by no means successful; for, although, in the
first instance, the timbers seemed to defy the
.bn 069.png
.pn +1
white-ant, especially those boiled in the solution
of arsenic, still they were not completely secured
from depredation; while, on the other hand,
nine in ten rived so dangerously as to demand
immediate props, and ultimate removal.
Many authors have recommended the boiling
of timber, planks, &c., with a view to extract
the sap, and thus to season them out of hand; but
they have invariably neglected to furnish us with
the results. Now, I have ever held it necessary,
that medical practitioners should keep a register
of the obituary, as well as of the convalescent
department, in order that we may know how to
avoid certain systems; which, doubtless, for want
of such a guide, or caution, have been repeatedly
resorted to by various medical characters,
who, insensible of those fatal effects that
had attended former experiments, thus consign
many patients to their graves! So should all
experiments, such as that above recorded, be
fully laid before the public, and their results
be candidly detailed. It is evident, that where
we see only the suggestion, without the proofs
of its failure, we must frequently be induced to
adopt hints of a most pernicious tendency.
Saul timber, when used in buildings, ought
always to have its ends completely open to inspection;
both to prevent the white-ant from
preying upon it under cover, and to insure its
being duly aerated; without which, however
.bn 070.png
.pn +1
charred and tarred it may be, rottenness will
speedily take place. This arises from being
bedded in masonry, which, during the rainy
season, even under the best roofs, will absord a
large portion of moisture, that will, infallibly,
in time, penetrate into the timber. It must be
recollected, that not one in hundreds of the
houses in Calcutta, or that are built on their
plan, contains a fire-place: hence, during some
months in the year, the walls will exhibit various
indications of moisture, even to their very
cornices; though this will often depend upon
the proper selection of sand for mixing in the
plaster. It is now well known, though not
long since discovered, that all sand, taken up
within the flowing of the tides, is strongly impregnated
with salt, which will keep the mortar
wherein it is mixed eternally subject to damps;
notwithstanding the tarrases may be flued, or
be founded upon pots. I have known several,
otherwise highly eligible, houses rendered untenable,
merely by this incautious use of river
sand; which occasioned whatever mats, or carpets,
were laid down, to be speedily rotted.
The fault was at first imputed to the vicinity of
the river, whence it was suspected the damps
were received; but it was ascertained, that such
tarrases, and mortar, as were compounded of
pit-sand, remained dry, and free from so obnoxious
a defect. Nevertheless, the greater part
.bn 071.png
.pn +1
of the buildings, in and about Calcutta, receive
a certain portion of river-sand, taken up within
the reach of brackish water: while this practice
is allowed, the walls and tarrases will remain
subject to occasional moisture; and, as we daily
see in that city, the plastering will blister, or,
indeed, become mottled, and obviously unsound.
Saul-timbers are found in all the forests, ranging
under the hills, branching our possessions
from Assam up to Hurdwar; they are more
abundant in some parts than in others, but no
where scarce. Many of these forests present
thousands upon thousands of acres, whereon
the saul, sissoo, and other useful timbers grow
spontaneously; offering to us an inexhaustible
depôt! The only consideration is, that water-carriage
should be at hand. The Indian wood-feller,
who pays not more than sixpence, or a
shilling, for each tree he may choose, and
which may, perhaps, contain from sixty to a
hundred feet of timber, considers it a bad
speculation, if some river be not within a
stone’s throw of the selected wood: his object
is to lop and bark as fast as he can, and then
to launch the tree into the river, there to be
fastened to others, intended to form a raft, or
float, which, being secured to a boat, may glide
down with the current to some established market.
His expences are very trifling; for, with
the exception of some duties, most injudiciously
.bn 072.png
.pn +1
imposed, his adventure will not cost more than
two-pence per foot, when arrived at the place of
destination; where it may commonly be sold,
without risk or delay, for full three times that
sum. Few saul-timbers measuring a ton, or
even a load, (i.e. forty, or fifty, cubic feet,)
stand the owner in more than three rupees when
landed at Patna; where such always meet with
a very ready sale, in whole rafts, at nine, ten,
and sometimes up to fifteen, rupees per stick,
(or timber;) and this, notwithstanding the
number of competitors in the trade. Those
competitors rarely prove injurious to each other,
while they render great service to the public,
by preventing the whole trade from falling into a
few hands. Thus, the prices of saul-timber are
not only kept down, but, in general, owing to
occasional gluts, seasoned timbers may be, to
any amount, purchased at the several ghauts, or
wharfs.
The mode of floating timber being so very
different from that in use with us, I offer a
description of it, under the hope of its affording
at least some variety, if not some useful information.
A common pulwar, (or paunchway,)
of perhaps thirty feet in length, and six or seven
in width, is equipped with two sticks of saul,
say forty feet long, and two feet in girth: these
are placed across her gunwales, at right angles
with her length, and about six feet from her
.bn 073.png
.pn +1
centre, and very firmly lashed down. The boat,
being in about three feet water, has a tree brought
up to each of her sides, where they are respectively
lashed to the cross timbers, and thus, in
succession, until she is judged incapable of receiving
more burthen. In the centre of the boat,
a small cabin is generally made, either of thatch,
or of arched bamboo laths, covered with durmah
mats: in this the crew are sheltered at night. It
is highly expedient to avoid launching such
rafts when the river is at the fullest, or the current
any way prone to deviate from the deepest
channels, as it must do in great floods, on
account of the waters finding, for a while,
passages along hollows among the inland parts;
that is, beyond their limits in ordinary seasons.
When a float of timber once gets over the river’s
bank, it must be the result of great good fortune,
if the channel is ever regained. Hence, when
the waters are falling, it is common to see very
large pinnaces, budjrows, and boats of burthen,
left upon some sand, on which they had struck,
but which the rapid ebbing of the floods prevented
them from quitting! In such cases,
some are allowed to remain until the ensuing
year, when the floods lift them; others are unladen,
and, by means of the joint efforts of hundreds
of villagers, are pushed along the sands to
the deep water; while those which appear
.bn 074.png
.pn +1
unequal to such a severe operation, are generally
broken up, and sold for various purposes.
When a float of timber becomes thus situated,
the best way is to cut the ropes of at least half
the exterior sticks on each side, and so to
lighten the boat, that she may be carried into a
depth suited to receiving them again: but this
operation, which, on paper, appears very simple,
requires great exertion, and no less despatch;
as the strength of the current, which
often runs six or seven miles within the hour,
renders it extremely difficult to manage such
immense logs; especially as they are very apt to
sink into the sands. We commonly see several
floats in company, proceeding, when the reaches
are straight, and the waters deep, with great
regularity; the boatmen, in such situations,
having little to do, sit smoking their nereauls,
with great composure: sometimes a sail is
hoisted, but, for the most part, it is deemed
expedient to check, rather than to accelerate, the
progress. Almost every float, or, at least, every
company of floats, has a canoe attached to it;
which, in doubtful waters, precedes, and directs
the men in charge of the respective vessels,
who, by means of luggies, (or bamboo-poles,
from twenty even to fifty feet in length,) fend off
the floats from banks, or guide them along the
deep water: without such pilotage, they would
.bn 075.png
.pn +1
be in perpetual danger of grounding, the inconveniences
of which are, as above shewn, by no
means inconsiderable.
Floats of timber cannot well come to an anchor,
except in very still water; hence, they
are usually brought-to under steep banks, where
there is great depth; and where, in case the
river should fall during the night, they would
not be left high and dry.
The greatest danger to which a timber float
can be exposed, is that of running upon a
sunken tree, which, having been washed away,
by the bank whereon it stood being undermined
by the strong currents, is hurled away into deep
water, where it probably lies exposed to view
for the first year. During the hot season, when
the waters are low, the boughs are often cut
away by persons in want of fuel; or, perhaps,
they are torn off by the succeeding rains, so far
as to cause their being concealed a foot or two
under the surface. When thus situated, they
throw up a deal of water, so that their locality
may be ascertained at some distance; but, owing
to heavy mists, and especially to clouds of sand,
they frequently are not discovered by the boatmen,
until it becomes impossible to avoid them.
If the pulwar, i.e. the supporting boat, strikes
upon one of the branches, her bottom will infallibly
be staved in; and, in all probability,
the immense body of water bearing upon the
.bn 076.png
.pn +1
timbers, will either tear them away from the
pulwar, or carry off her upper works, leaving
her bottom entangled. In either case, the situation
of the boatmen becomes highly critical;
but, as they generally are expert swimmers,
(though, strange to say, some dandies, have,
like Falstaff, ‘a wonderful alacrity at sinking,’)
few are drowned on such occasions. The timbers,
however, rarely fail to find the bottom,
so soon as their buoyant companion is wrecked.
The great number of trees thus immersed,
some of which equal our largest oaks, render
it extremely dangerous to go down with the
stream during the night: in some strong waters,
such impediments are numerous, and render
the navigation very hazardous, even during the
day time; especially should a goon, or track
rope, give way just after getting a boat above
them; when this misfortune happens, the
chances of escape are comparatively small indeed.
When boats, heavily laden, strike upon a tree,
they sometimes go to pieces, in consequence
of the water’s rapidity; but, when so entangled
as to be pierced in several parts, they very
generally remain entire, presenting, as the waters
subside, the very curious spectacle of a
vessel, perhaps carrying twelve or fifteen hundred
maunds, sitting, as it were, among the
boughs, often ten or twelve feet above the
.bn 077.png
.pn +1
surface of the stream. It is by no means unusual,
in the course of a week’s travelling, to
see one, or more, of these disastrous elevations;
more especially about the month of October.
The misfortune is, that, though the cargo may,
perhaps, be saved, if not of a perishable nature,
such as sugar, salt-petre, &c.; yet, that the
vessel, however expeditiously emptied, can never
be got off; consequently, she must be broken
up.
With respect to the prices of saul timbers,
we generally find them to be nearly the same,
year after year, at the same places; provided a
sufficient number, but not a great glut, should
arrive within the proper season. On an average,
near Patna, the cubic foot will cost about sixpence,
at Moorshadabad, about a shilling, and, at
Calcutta, about two shillings, or even half-a-crown.
An extra price is, of course, put on
timbers of superior dimensions, while the smaller
kinds, called bautties, which rarely contain more
than eight or ten feet, are, in an opposite degree,
depreciated. The saul is a very solid
wood, at least equally so as elm, but has not
its pliancy, nor is it quite so apt to split: its
grain usually runs tolerably even; it is likewise
heavy, yet by no means so ponderous as teak:
both, like many of our firmer woods, sink in
fresh water.
In the upper provinces, some very fine oak
.bn 078.png
.pn +1
timbers are occasionally to be seen: these are
chiefly of a peculiar kind, nearly approaching
to chocolate color, extremely difficult to cut
up, and, consequently, very heavy: this last
characteristic gives them the name of seesah, or,
lead-wood. The prices of these trees, which
generally measure about the same as the saul,
from the same forests, (namely, from the neighbourhood
of Peelabeet,) rather exceed those of
the latter description; and would probably be
greatly enhanced, if the natives stood in need
of such very substantial wood for any of their
buildings, or manufactures. The fact is, that
the carpenters generally endeavor to dissuade
their employers from purchasing oak, by representing
it as subject to many defects; though
the true reason is, that its hardness infallibly
causes more grinding of, than working with,
their tools; which are almost always either too
much, or too little tempered. At Futty-Ghur,
saul timbers commonly sell for full eighteen-pence
the foot, and oaks for about two shillings.
I recollect buying some of the former, that
measured thirty feet in length, with an average
squaring of fourteen inches, for twenty-eight
rupees each; and oaks of the same
dimensions, or nearly so, at thirty-five: but
wood was then extremely scarce, and at full
twenty per cent. above the ordinary rates.
The great aptness of saul-wood to warp, we
.bn 079.png
.pn +1
should suppose, might have favored the importation
of oak, notwithstanding the outcry
against its flinty hardness: and such would
doubtless have been the case, had not another
kind of wood, possessing a very fine grain, and
rather handsomely veined, been abundant.
This, which is called the sissoo, grows in most
of the great forests, intermixed with the saul;
but, in lieu of towering up with a straight stem,
seems partial to crooked forms, such as suit it
admirably for the knees of ships, and for such
parts as require the grain to follow some particular
curve. This wood is extremely hard, and
heavy, of a dark brown, inclining to a purple
tint when polished; after being properly seasoned,
it rarely cracks, or warps; nor is it so
subject as saul to be destroyed by either white-ants,
or river-worms. The domestic uses of
sissoo are chiefly confined to the construction of
furniture, especially chairs, tables, tepoys, (or
tripods,) bureaus, book-cases, ecritoires, &c.
&c. for all which purposes it is peculiarly appropriate,
with the exception of its being very
ponderous. This objection is, however, counter-balanced
by its great durability, and by the
extraordinary toughness of the tenons, dovetails,
&c. necessarily made by the cabinet-maker,
or joiner. Sissoo is, of late, more employed
than formerly for the frame, ribs, knees, &c. of
ships, especially those of great burthen: for
.bn 080.png
.pn +1
such, it is found to be fully as tough and as
durable as the best oak. When timbers can be
had of this wood long enough for the purpose, it
is often applied for bends, and, indeed, for a
portion of the planking, or casing; but it is very
rarely that a plank of ten feet can be had free
from curve. Though admirably suited for stern
and head-work, it is neither long enough for
keels in general, nor sufficiently uniform in its
diameter for the supply of stern-posts. Some
sissoo-trees grow to a great weight; but, unluckily,
the devious directions of their boughs
render it necessary to lop them away for minor
purposes: if, instead of dividing into several
large branches, at perhaps only ten or twelve
feet from the ground, one large stem were to
rise, however crooked, to double that height,
there would be a great encrease of substance; as
it is, however, we may account it an excellent
timber indeed that measures a ton (i.e. forty
cubic feet).
This inconvenience is greatly augmented by
the slovenly manner in which trees are felled
throughout India. There, it is common to see
the axe (for no saws are used on such occasions)
laid to the stem often at a yard or more from the
soil; while, at the same time, full a cubit in
depth is destroyed in widening the orifice, so as
to penetrate into the heart: this creates considerable
loss, which is frequently rendered still
.bn 081.png
.pn +1
greater by the irregular manner in which the
butt rends when in the act of quitting the root,
or stool. If this wood were more scarce, probably
greater pains would be taken to make the
most of its length; as it is, we see, that, even
those ship-builders who occasionally send their
agents into the Morungs, or great forests to the
north of Bahar and Purneah, allow the same loss
to take place; thus disqualifying the timbers
from more general, as well as more important,
adaptation. The price of sissoo, for the most
part, runs about twenty-five, or even to forty
per cent. above that of saul; but, in many places,
up the country especially, where naval architecture
is not in view, their values are generally
about equal. In such situations, it is less an
object of import; since its utility is greatly circumscribed,
and, in a great variety of instances,
superseded, by the baubool, (a species of mimosa,
generally growing wild,) whose crooked
billets are deservedly in great estimation, and
whose bark is considered to be, if any thing,
superior to that of oak for the tanners’ use.
I should have remarked, that, in some parts
of the country, especially along the western
frontier, a small kind of saul grows wild: this
rarely exceeds six inches in diameter, and is
commonly used entire, in lieu of bamboos, for
enclosures, rafters of bungalows, &c. It is very
peculiar that this wood cannot be trusted for any
.bn 082.png
.pn +1
length of time, even under a thatch; it being
subject to the depredations of a very small insect,
called the g’hoon, which perforates it in a thousand
places, depositing its eggs, which are very
numerous, and absolutely rendering the rafter a
mere honey-comb. During the day, these mischievous
little devils are commonly quiet, but,
after night-fall, when all else is still, may be
heard in every quarter! A person unaccustomed
to the sounds, would suppose that a very
heavy shower of hail were falling on the thatch.
In the course of two or three seasons, sometimes
in much less, the rafters will be found to give
way; on examination, they appear as though
pierced with large awls; and, when struck
forcibly with a hammer, yield a cloud of yellowish
powder, resulting no doubt from the labors
of the multitude of inhabitants. The g’hoon,
which rarely exceeds the sixth of an inch in
length, is of a chocolate color, very hard about
the head, has firm exterior coats over its wings,
and terminates abruptly behind, giving the
exact appearance of its rump having been burnt
off. Those timbers which are used immediately
after being felled, as usually happens, are certainly
the first to be attacked by the g’hoon; but,
so far as my own observations went, and according
to the experience of two years, in a quarter
where we used scarcely any other kind of wood
for rafters, even a year’s seasoning did not afford
.bn 083.png
.pn +1
security against, though it obviously retarded,
their attacks. Possibly, if all of this description
of saul trees intended for rafters, were to be
immersed in some of the very numerous puddles
every where abounding in their vicinity, and of
which a great majority are strongly impregnated
with minerals, particularly iron, copper, and
sulphur, the g’hoons might be altogether repelled:
the immersion should continue for a year or two;
the trees being previously allowed to season
standing, by cutting away a circle of bark,
about six inches wide, near the ground, that
the flow of sap might be discontinued. We
find no mode to answer so well as this for our
climate; in India, the advantages would be still
more extensive, in consequence of the regularity,
and particular effects of the three great seasons,
into which the year is there naturally divided.
It is curious, but true, that the g’hoon acts less
upon such timbers as have been squared, than
on such as have only been deprived of their bark;
and, that in the large species of saul, that is,
such as is used in most parts of the country for
great buildings, &c., it either is unable, or not
disposed, to burrow.
Intermixed with the smaller species of saul,
though by no means abundant, we find another
tree, bearing, in common with the oak, the
designation of seesah; and that, too, owing to
the great specific gravity of its wood: this,
.bn 084.png
.pn +1
however, does not grow to any size, but appears
admirably suited to many of those purposes
for which lignum vitæ, and ebony, are now
used.
In the same jungles with the foregoing, a
most remarkable tree is sometimes found, of
which the interior is of a very dark color, nearly
approaching to black: hence, the natives call it
the ‘cowah’ (or ‘crow-tree’); but, from the
hardness of its wood, it certainly might, with
propriety, be termed the ‘iron-tree.’ The carpenters
seem to view it much in the same light
with the black-oak of Peelabeet; and, doubtless,
tremble for their tools, whenever the cowah is
to become subject to their labors.
Although such bungalows as are built with a
view to duration, are sometimes built of the
best materials, and have every part of their roofs
sustained by rafters of the best saul, by far the
majority of such buildings, and nearly all at the
military stations, are constructed on a much
cheaper scale, having only mango-wood rafters,
door-plates, &c. The great abundance of mango
trees, added to their being easily worked, and
their growing in general with stems sufficiently
straight to furnish beams, of perhaps two feet
square, and from fifteen to thirty feet long, give
them a decided preference over every other kind
of wood brought from any distance. Formerly,
a gentleman could send out his servant, with
.bn 085.png
.pn +1
wood-cutters, sawyers, &c., to fell whatever
trees might be found suitable to his intentions,
without any questions being asked; but of late,
and especially since the introduction of the
Mocurrery settlement, (which will be hereafter
explained,) the zemindars, (or land-holders,)
and the raiuts, (or peasants,) have set a value
upon every twig that grows, and invariably
demand from one to four rupees, for such mango
trees as may be felled for the use of any European;
especially in the military. As to a
Company’s civil servant, either the hope of his
favor, or the fear of his resentment, generally is
found to seal the mouth of the pretended proprietor
of the soil; who even is assiduous in
furnishing workmen and conveyance on most
occasions of this description. I must caution
my readers against entertaining any sentiment
unfavorable to the gentlemen alluded to: the
adulation in question results entirely from that
servile, abject, and crafty disposition, for
which the zemindars are notorious where their
interests are any way implicated. They judge
of our collectors, magistrates, &c., as they
would of their own; at least, so far as to suppose
that courtesy will secure their good-will;
but, they are, at the same time, thoroughly
sensible, that in all public, as well as in all private,
intercourse, the Company’s servants act
with the most conscientious propriety, and with
.bn 086.png
.pn +1
the most undeviating attention to justice. It
matters not that this character may be repugnant
to some proofs existing of former rapacity,
and extortion; which may now be deemed
obsolete, or, at the utmost, only existing to
such extent as must be expected under every
form of government, and among every race of
people, in spite of the utmost vigilance.
The wood of the mango is much like that of
the plane-tree, but rather more tough, and its
fibres rather coarser: nevertheless, it is in very
general use for rafters, door and wall-plates,
frames for windows and doors, especially of out-offices,
pannelled and plain doors, floorings of
factories, and drying-rooms; likewise for wine
chests, indigo boxes, roofs of budjrows, and a
thousand other purposes, both of individual convenience,
and of mercantile service. It is, however,
particularly subject to the white-ant; and,
unless carefully preserved from damp, will
speedily decay: its being very light, and easy to
work, are points much in its favor. Though
we consider a mango-plank to be at least at par,
when it measures twenty inches, or two feet, in
width, yet great numbers may be had, by
research, of double that breadth. My carpenters
once felled a tree, which proved too large for any
saw I could obtain in that quarter.
Sometimes we see very old tables made of
mango-wood, which exhibit some beautiful veins,
.bn 087.png
.pn +1
and acquire a substantial polish; but, such can
only attend a very careful choice of planks,
which must likewise be seasoned, and be worked
to great advantage: otherwise, a mango-wood
table will appear singularly coarse and mean.
As to the tree itself, much may be said in its
favor, though, owing to the stiffness of the leaves,
it cannot be termed graceful: its deep green,
contrasted with the white spindling blossoms,
(much resembling those of the horse-chesnut,)
and its abundant foliage, give it a richness, and
render it peculiarly gratifying to the eye;
especially as it is in its greatest beauty during
the early part of the hot season, when the grass
begins to parch, and the surface of the soil
changes from that agreeable verdure produced
by the rains, and, in some degree, cherished by
the succeeding cold months, to a very sombre
russet! The fruit does not run much risque
after the blossoms have once fairly set; though,
sometimes, severe blights occur, which render
the whole abortive; when about the size of a
very large gooseberry, the young mangoes make
excellent pies; not unlike those containing
apples, but with a certain terebinthinic flavor,
which does not always please in the first instance,
but soon becomes palatable. When about half
grown, that is, beyond the size of a large walnut,
they are in good order for pickling. This fruit
is also preserved in common mosaul-oil; in this
.bn 088.png
.pn +1
instance, they are allowed to remain about a
month in the vinegar pickle, before they are
immersed in the oil. Many persons are very
partial to the pickle thus made; but, in my
humble opinion, nothing can be more rank;
especially when the rinds are not pared off.
Mangoes likewise make a very rich preserve,
provided they are prepared before the stones are
suffered to harden; else they will be very fibrous,
and cut with peculiar harshness. With respect
to the ripe fruit, it is impossible to describe the
flavor; since, even on the same tree, various
kinds will often be found. A stranger would
conclude, on seeing mangoes of different colors,
different scents, and different shapes, ripening
on the same tree, that they had been grafted;
but such is not the fact: there seems to be some
very peculiar property, that causes it to shoot
out with such different bearings, which remain
on distinct boughs; as though the tree were
composed of various twigs, all proceeding from
the same stem. What can be said of a fruit
varying in flavor, from the finest apricot, down
to a very bad carrot? Such, however, is known
to be common: it is true, that, for the most
part, the whole crop of a tree will be pretty
similar, both in shape, and flavor; but such
is not always the case. As for the produce of
trees resulting from the kernels of the same kind
of mango, that is quite a lottery; for, like
.bn 089.png
.pn +1
potatoes raised from seed, there will generally be
found a great variety.
The Chinese have produced considerable amelioration
in mangoes, by a very simple process.
They select some healthy branches on a good
tree, and, having pricked the bark through with
a sharp awl, surround the part with a lump of
wet clay, or loam; which they secure by means
of a piece of canvas, bound lightly with hempen
bands. Above each part thus treated, a large
pot of water is suspended, having in its bottom
a small hole; which, being partially stopped
with a piece of rag, allows the water to drip,
whereby the clay is kept constantly moist. In
about three months, small fibres shoot out
through the punctured bark; which, on the
branch being cut off, and the canvas being removed,
strike into the soil, and become roots.
It is highly curious, that the fruit produced by
branches thus treated, becomes more fleshy,
while the stone diminishes considerably; it being
more flat, and rarely so firm as that of the common
mango. By persevering in the operation,
that is, by repeating it on the branches of a tree
thus cultivated, for some generations, the kernel
becomes so reduced as scarcely to be noticeable,
while the skin also loses much of that
highly acrid quality, arising from the abundance
of turpentine it contains.
Mangoes are peculiarly stimulant, rarely failing
.bn 090.png
.pn +1
to cause those who eat of them freely to
break out with boils of considerable size, and
often very tedious in their cure. It is absolutely
necessary to treat these as critical abscesses;
for, were any repellent to be applied, serious
consequences would inevitably follow. Persons
lately arrived in the country, often devour
this luscious fruit, until checked either by a
dozen or two of these most distressing companions,
or, perhaps, in consequence of that
kind of bowel-complaint prevalent in all hot climates,
and which, though generally not very
difficult to remedy when properly treated in its
first stage, soon turns to dysentery, carrying off
a large portion of those whose constitutions are
not remarkably sound. When eaten in moderation,
mangoes are gently aperient; but if, notwithstanding
its acrid taste and effects, the rind
should be incautiously swallowed, the stomach
will be considerably disordered. The gland, or
kernel, which in shape is something like a very
large, flat, Windsor-bean, is unpleasant to the
palate, its flavor being very similar to that of the
acorn. Swine, especially of the wild tribes,
which often take shelter, during the season, in
topes, or forests, of wild mangoes, eat the entire
fruit, as it falls from the trees, with great avidity,
and thrive amazingly.
The generality of mango-topes owe their origin
to religious institutions, or to bequests, or to
.bn 091.png
.pn +1
charitable donations. To plant one, it is necessary
that the land should be purchased in fee-simple;
when, the trees being set out, perhaps
thirty feet, or more, asunder, in rows, so as to
form regular square intervals, the whole are
fenced by means of a deep ditch; from which
the excavated soil is thrown inwards, and either
planted with baubool, (mimosa,) or sown with
that tall kind of grass which bears a very large
tassel, and is known by the name of surput: of
this grass notice has already been taken in describing
the seerky used in thatching bungalows.
Some topes are endowed with small sums for the
purpose of maintaining a priest, for whom a
comfortable residence, and a substantial durgaw,
(or temple,) are erected. The sale of the fruit,
(which generally proves a full crop in four or five
years, the trees being then as large as a well-grown
walnut-tree,) furnishes the means of sinking
a well, cased with masonry. But it is more
common for the person who causes the tope to
be planted, to sink the well also; and to celebrate
the marriage of the former with the latter,
in a manner suitable to his rank or property. On
such occasions, the well, being supposed to
possess the fecundatory powers, is considered
the husband; the tope being typified as feminine,
by the fruit it produces. However much
we may be disposed to smile at a custom generally
attended with much ceremony, and expence,
.bn 092.png
.pn +1
we cannot but admire its effects;
which, in a tropical climate, are highly beneficial,
both to the weary traveller, and to the
thirsty soil. Hence, the sight of a mango-tope
is generally attended with the most pleasing
anticipations!
Although mango-topes abound in every part of
the lower provinces, their wood, except in bungalows,
is rarely employed in European architecture;
nor do the natives make much use of
it as a timber: large quantities are every year
cut up for planks, intended chiefly for very ordinary
purposes, where great strength and durability
are not essentials. The immense quantities
of fine bamboos, which ordinarily grow very
straight to the height of sixty feet, or more,
though rarely measuring more than five inches
diameter near the root, and gradually tapering
off as they ascend, supply the contented native
with rafters, joists, posts, pillars, laths, and a
great variety of et ceteras, all tending either to
his shelter, or to his convenience. The ordinary
price of these invaluable reeds (for they are of
the arundo tribe) may be from three-pence to
five-pence each; that is, generally from seven
to twelve for a rupee, according to size and demand.
Millions of them are annually brought
to Calcutta, both by water, and on hackeries;
in the former instance, they, being remarkably
buoyant, are floated in clumps, or, perhaps,
.bn 093.png
.pn +1
are made into rafts, on which boossah, (or
chaff,) and even corn, are laden; or they are
tied to the sides of very large boats, which
also carry from five hundred, to as many
thousands, as a cargo. The buoyancy of the
bamboo is occasioned as much by its various
cells, as by the lightness of its wood. These
cells, in a common sized bamboo, may be about
three quarters of an inch in diameter in those
joints that are near the roots; where the wood
is far more solid and compact than in the upper
parts, towards which the cells become gradually
wider, and the joints longer; thus reducing the
substance of the bamboo very considerably, as
we find to be the case with reeds in general.
This variety in the several parts affords considerable
convenience, their allotment being made
according as the work may require more or less
substance; and, as the whole bamboo may be
split, like whale-bone, from top to bottom,
without much exertion, scope is afforded for
applying it, with great promptness, to an infinite
variety of purposes.
In their whole state, bamboos are used, not
only for rafters in the construction of bungalows,
but as yards for the sails of the common country
craft; sometimes those of extraordinary size
are selected for top-gallant studding-sail booms,
in vessels not exceeding four or five hundred
tons: their immense strength qualifying them
.bn 094.png
.pn +1
admirably for that situation. The smaller open
boats, throughout the East, are generally fitted
with bamboo masts, selected from the lower part
of the reed, the upper being more suited, by its
lightness, to be employed as yards: thus, for
three-pence, a boat of about four or five tons
may be furnished, from the same bamboo, with
both mast and yard. In vessels of greater burthen,
two or more, even up to a dozen, of bamboos,
are lashed together around a stout piece of
wood, which, passing through the thatch, fits
into a step on the vessel’s bottom, and is well
secured by chocks and lashings in various places.
This stick, which serves as the base of the mast,
may be about fifteen feet long, and nine or ten
inches diameter: it is commonly left in a very
rough state, that the bamboos which are to surround
it may be more firmly held in their places.
In this manner the mast is run up, probably to
the height of forty or fifty feet, according to the
vessel’s burthen, and at every two or three feet
is bound by cords made of white hemp. The
position of this awkward-looking pile is maintained
by stays innumerable; many of which,
being allowed to point forward, before the line
of the mast’s perpendicular, obstruct the bracing
of the yard very considerably. The strength of
that yard must be proportioned to the sail;
sometimes one well-selected bamboo may suffice,
but in vessels of great bulk, say from sixty to
.bn 095.png
.pn +1
ninety tons, two, or even three, stout bamboos
are found requisite.
The sail is usually made of a very coarse kind
of canvas, constructed of a very indifferent kind
of hemp, generally used for rice bags, &c., and
known by the name of gunny: each piece may
measure six or seven feet by thirty inches; consequently,
the innumerable joinings made in a
large sail, offer a very ready means for the wind’s
escape. Blacky is not very particular in this
respect; with him, a sail is a sail, so long as a
bit remains adequate to giving the vessel way
through still waters.
It will naturally be asked, ‘Why is such miserable
tackling in use?’ The reasons are, firstly,
because the native owner of a vessel will not go
to one farthing expence beyond what may be indispensably
necessary, however clumsy, or subject
to mishap, to set his vessel afloat, and to have
her, as he thinks, ready for departure. Secondly,
the materials are probably of his own growth,
or he deals in them, or, which is often the sole
motive, he finds them, in the first instance, by
far cheaper than more substantial materials; and,
thirdly, even if other materials of a better quality,
and in every instance more appropriate, were
to be had for the same money, he would not
very readily deviate from the customs of his
ancestors. Were a vessel fitted up on European
principles to be wrecked, the whole family
.bn 096.png
.pn +1
would impute the accident to the sin engendered
by such adoption of the customs of a race held
in abomination by even the lowest casts, (or
sects,) throughout the country. Nevertheless,
we sometimes see the manjy and dandies grievously
put out of their way, by some shrewd
native, who resolutely breaks through the
general prejudice, and imitates that which his
faculties convince him is founded upon science.
Not that he will understand the how, and the
wherefore: no; he sees the practice is good,
and he adopts it: whereas, if any regulation
were to be framed to enforce his compliance with
our system, in that, or in any other particular,
we should assuredly witness his receding, if
possible, from every idea of improvement; or,
if under the necessity of conforming, that his
whole deportment would betray the reluctance,
and antipathy, he felt on the occasion.
May not this trait in the character of Asiatics
in general, serve as a hint to those who talk of
coercing them to the adoption of Christianity?
May it not shew that much may be done by
suaviter in modo, provided we temper the fortiter
in re?—Certainly!
Exclusive of the bamboo, the natives have
an ample resource for rafters, as well as for posts
and pillars, in the cocoa-nut tree, which grows,
it may be said wild, throughout those parts within
reach either of the sea-water, or of the sea-air.
.bn 097.png
.pn +1
Not that it is absolutely confined to such
situations; but, in proportion as those are
removed, so does the natural growth of this tree
gradually diminish; giving way to the taul, (or
fan-leafed palm,) which, though less umbrageous,
and, in many instances, less useful, attains a
great height, and furnishes a much larger quantity
of wood. In general, few Bengallees will
cut down a nereaul, (or cocoa-nut tree,) which
supplies them with so many requisites. Thus,
the outer coating, which often weighs from one
to two pounds, when stripped off longitudinally,
furnishes those fibres called coir, whereof both
small rigging and cables are made. This kind
of rope is particularly elastic, and buoyant;
floating on the surface of the sea, to any extent;
therefore, when, owing to the strength of the
current, a boat misses a ship, it is usual to veer
out a quantity of coir; having previously
fastened an oar, or a small cask, &c. to its end:
by this device, the boat may be easily enabled
to haul up to the ship’s stern.
I should think, that, were a coir hawser kept
on board every ship in the British marine, a
great number of lives would be saved. It is,
however, peculiar, that fresh water rots coir in
a very short time; corroding it in a most unaccountable
manner; whereas salt water absolutely
invigorates; seeming to afford additional elasticity.
This shews that coir is by no means fit
.bn 098.png
.pn +1
to be used in running rigging, nor as shroud-hawsers,
&c., especially for vessels subject to
approach low latitudes; it being easily snapped
in frosty weather.
Nothing can equal the ease with which a
ship rides at anchor when her cables are of coir:
as the surges approach the bows, the vessel
gradually recedes, in consequence of the cable
yielding to their force; but, so soon as they
have passed, it contracts again, drawing the
vessel gently back to her first position. The
lightness of the material doubtless adds to this
pleasing effect; for the cable would float, were
not the anchor sufficiently heavy to keep it perfectly
down. It is to be remarked, that a
hempen-cable always makes a curve downwards,
between the vessel and the anchor, but a coir
cable makes a curve upwards: therefore, if a
right line were drawn from the hawse-hole, to
the ring of the anchor, it would be something
like the axis of a parabolic spindle; of which
the cables would form the two elliptic segments,
or nearly so.
A very considerable trade is carried on, from
all parts of India, with the Maldivies, and
Sechelles, (very numerous clusters of islands
near the west coast of the peninsula,) for coir
and cowries; the latter being used for inferior
currency, while the former is greatly appreciated,
on account of the fibres being much larger, and
.bn 099.png
.pn +1
firmer, than those grown upon the continent.
Not only the islands above named, but all
within the Indian seas, abound with the cocoa-nut
tree; which, in many of them, stand absolutely
in the water. These owe their origin to
the growth of such nuts as, having been blown
down, or dropped, when ripe, are buried in the
sands; above which their acrospires soon appear,
when the tree shoots up with greater vigor than
its inland competitors. It is said, that, about
a hundred and fifty years back, the Sechelles and
Maldivies were known only as concealed sands,
highly dangerous to the navigator; and that, after
they had, by the action of the sea, accumulated
so as to become superficial, a vessel laden with
cocoa-nuts was wrecked upon one of these banks,
which speedily threw up whole forests of that
tree, in consequence of the seed thus furnished:
others attribute the first supply to the adventitious
floating of nuts from the Malabar coast.
Nothing appears to discredit either of the accounts;
but the former appears by far the most
probable. Be it one way or the other, we now
find that the islands in question not only produce
immense forests of cocoas, but, that they
are inhabited by a people, governed much in the
same way as the other Arabian islands, (for such
we may call these, as well as Johanna, Comora,
Succotra, &c.;) and whose commercial relations
may be said to consist of coir and cowries, bartered
.bn 100.png
.pn +1
with their neighbours of the peninsula,
and the Arabs of Museat, &c., for cotton-cloths,
rice, sugar, &c. To whatever chance it may
have been owing, the navigator now feels less
anxiety when near these isles; for, notwithstanding
they are so little elevated as to remain nearly
in their former state of immersion, yet their
cocoa forests, which generally tower to the
height of thirty or forty feet, being visible at the
distance of many miles, enable him to ascertain
his locality with correctness, and to avoid the
numerous shoals, by a due attention to the
bearings and soundings. The natives are said to
be extremely well acquainted with their archipelago,
and to pilot vessels of great burthen with
perfect security and precision.
The next consideration with the native, respecting
the cocoa-nut, is its water, by us called
cocoa-nut milk. This pleasant beverage is contained
within the shell, and, in general, may
amount to three quarters of a pint. It is purest
when the nut is so young and tender as to allow
the husk and shell to be cut with about as much
facility as a stringy turnip; at which time, very
little coagulum adheres to the interior of the
shell, and that little is soft, like milk barely
turned by rennet. Gradually, the water becomes
rather turbid, and acquires a stronger
taste; while the coagulum encreases to about
the third, or even the half, of an inch in thickness;
.bn 101.png
.pn +1
hardening, and becoming tough, but
easily snapped into pieces. When arrived at
this state, it abounds in oil, which, at first is
remarkably sweet, though of a peculiar flavor,
and is much used by the native Portugueze, in
lieu of ghee, in their culinary operations.
The mode of extracting the oil is very simple:
a piece of wood, say two feet in length, six
inches broad, and two or three thick, bears at
one of its extremities a stem of iron, driven in
by means of a spike: this stem must be stout,
and should measure about ten inches; but,
towards its summit, spreading into the form of
an inverted crescent, somewhat concave, and
deeply jagged at its circumference. Sitting, as
usual, on the ground, the operator keeps the
baton from tilting, by placing one of his feet
firmly upon it: in that position he takes the
nuts, commonly broken into two or more pieces,
by a forcible stroke of some heavy implement,
or by dashing them on the floor, and, by rasping
the interior of each piece against the jagged
edges of the iron, causes the coagulum to fall, in
form of a coarse powder, into a vessel placed
below to receive it. To effect this with more
facility, the stem slants obliquely from the baton;
allowing room for the receiver to be put immediately
under the crescent. The raspings are
now put into hot water, in which they are well
stirred and pressed with a large wooden spoon;
.bn 102.png
.pn +1
by this means the oil is separated; it is drawn
off by opening a little hole near its surface, as it
floats upon the water. It is inconceivable how
much oil is thus obtained in a few minutes;
but, both from its own nature, and the mode of
extraction, it soon becomes offensively rancid;
a state in which it is by no means objectionable
to the swarthy Signors, who, as well as the Hindus
in general, are partial to it as an unguent for
the hair. To a fresh European, the scent of this
powerful finish to the charms of an Indian Venus
is highly objectionable: of all the stinks of
which India can boast, it certainly is the worst.
But, as before observed, if used immediately after
extraction, nothing can be sweeter: it also burns
remarkably well; therefore is in general use for
lamps among all the European inhabitants. The
residuum, after separating the oil, fattens poultry
better than grain: the pork of swine fed upon
cocoa-nuts is delicious; as must be confessed by
all who have visited the Andamans and Nicobars.
Considering the coagulum as a food for
mankind, I should by no means feel disposed to
recommend it; though it is certain that the
natives eat of it freely: experience satisfies me,
that it is extremely difficult of digestion; and
that, when ate as a meal, much inconvenience,
if not indisposition, will generally follow. Nor
can I recommend the water of the young nut to
persons whose bowels are not of the strongest;
.bn 103.png
.pn +1
it being aperient, and, when used beyond a certain
quantity, extremely apt to induce dysentery:
the amount of a nut-ful may, perhaps, be
drank with perfect safety. During very hot
weather, if the nuts are fresh gathered, or suffered
to remain for a while in cold water, it is not
very easy to withstand the temptation.
The shell of the cocoa-nut is always most
valuable when suffered to ripen upon the tree;
it then acquires great hardness, and a fine dark
chocolate color, interveined by fine lines of a
rich dun, or clay, or perhaps striated with those
tints: they then take a good polish, and may,
when tastefully mounted, be considered as ornamental
to the sideboard. But, it is to be observed,
that they are rather a brittle ware, compared
with their solid appearance; and, that it
requires a great length of time to divest them
wholly of a certain strong scent, reminding those
who have been accustomed to the oil, of that
peculiar and powerful rancidity it invariably
acquires by long keeping, and especially by
exposure to the air.
Previous to the introduction of lamps in the
halls, passages, &c., in the houses of Europeans,
cocoa-nut oil was to be had for about three-pence,
or four-pence, per seer (i.e. the measurement
of a seer, which comes very nearly to
the English quart; in some places exceeding it,
but in others falling short). Since that practice
.bn 104.png
.pn +1
has obtained, in consequence of candles having
been doubled in price, the oil has likewise been
enhanced; so that it now sells at about three and
a half, or four seers per rupee; which accords
with seven-pence halfpenny of our currency per
quart. No kind of animal oil is in use among
the natives of India, either as food, or in manufactories;
if, indeed, we except that most curious
production, the meemii-ke-tale, or oil extracted
from the bodies of malefactors; who,
being well fed for a month, or more, previous to
execution, for the purpose of encreasing their
fat, have large fires lighted under them while on
the gibbet, and metal vessels placed to receive
the drippings. That this practice has heretofore
obtained, under the government of the native
princes, does not, I believe, admit of a doubt;
but, that it is now obsolete, is equally certain.
Still meemii-ke-tale (i.e. human oil) may be had
at many places; though not genuine, but composed
of whatever materials may form a mass
resembling that originally in use. I have seen
several of these masses, which were of a dark,
opaque brown, appearing something like coagulated
blood mixed with dirty jelly, and become
hard by exposure to the sun, or by inspissation:
its smell was intolerably offensive. On the
whole, this celebrated extract, which is supposed
to cure all contractions, and stiffness of
the joints, is a subject of astonishment, when
.bn 105.png
.pn +1
we consider it to be in use among a people so
very peculiar in their tenets, and professing so
much humanity, not only towards their brethren,
but towards all animated nature. Had
Shakespeare been acquainted with the existence
of the meemii, he certainly would have given it
a place in Hecate’s stir-about!
If the natives were intent upon obtaining animal
oils, the greatest abundance could be commanded;
porpoises, turtles, alligators, dog-fishes,
and sharks, all of which contain large
quantities, exist in every part where the water
is brackish; some of them, indeed, become even
more numerous as their distance from the sea
encreases. Whales, likewise, are occasionally
seen in the Indian Sea, and in the Mozambique
Channel are extremely common. But, to persons
habituated from their infancy to the use of
high-savored viands, any sweet oil would be
insipid: such people want a haut-goût in their
sauces; yet it must be confessed, they certainly
manage to render even their strongest preparations
extremely palatable; but, to relish them
properly, the culinary operations must not
always be witnessed. Babachees, or cooks, in
the employ of Europeans, are sometimes extremely
filthy; far more so than when dressing
their own victuals. Few of the natives are sparing
in the use of water on such occasions, even
though it should be brought from some distance;
.bn 106.png
.pn +1
yet, it is equally true, that whole villages are
sometimes content to use water from a pool,
comparable only with that into which Ariel
ushered the surly Caliban.
The trunk of the cocoa-nut tree not only answers,
when the central pith is scooped out, for
canoes, but, when split, as it may easily be
into slips of any width, forms excellent rafters:
if applied to that purpose, all the soft part is
taken entirely away, leaving only the exterior
case, which is very hard, tough, and elastic,
about three inches in thickness. A trunk of
about a foot in diameter will commonly rive into
five staves, each about seven inches wide: such
should be placed edgeways on the walls, that
their scantlings may be in a proper direction.
Rafters thus made, provided they be not more
than twenty feet, or thereabouts, in length, and
not too heavily laden, will stand for generations,
without shewing the smallest symptom of decay.
In saying this, I am to be understood as alluding
to their being under cover; otherwise, they
will not exhibit such durability, although they
may fully claim to be on a par with most of the
indigenous timbers.
The reader is to understand, that, excepting
where merely temporary, that is to say, intended
for a few weeks, or months, bungalows are always
built with pavilion thatches; by which construction
they resist the weather far better, while
.bn 107.png
.pn +1
the quantity of brick-work is considerably less
than where gables are run up. The proximity
of the thatches in the veranda parts, renders
them far less cool, in the hot months, than the
interior, in which the thatch is so much further
removed: the latter would be rendered much
cooler were flues, or ventilators, to be made for
the purpose of carrying off the rarefied air, as
already suggested. Cocoa-nuts are often sawed
into two equal parts, for the purpose of being
made into ladles: to effect this, a hole is made
on each side, about half an inch from the edge,
and a stick is passed through, serving as a handle;
much the same as we see in the jets used
by brewers for taking liquor out of their vats.
When sawed into two equal parts, across the
grain of the coir coating, cocoa-nuts make excellent
table brushes, causing the planks to assume
a very high polish from their friction. As
this operation requires some strength, it is proper
to be careful that the edges of the shell, if
left in, (as is sometimes, though improperly,
done,) should be perfectly smooth; being once
rendered so, they will never scratch, however
forcibly the brush may be applied. A very good
mode is, to strip off the coir, and, after soaking
it well in water, to beat it with a heavy wooden
mall until the pieces become a little pliant, when
they should be firmly bound together with an
iron ring: their ends being then levelled, the
.bn 108.png
.pn +1
implement is fit for use. A little bees’-wax
rubbed occasionally upon them, adds greatly
to the lustre of the furniture, without being
clammy.
The stem of the toddy-tree is very similar to
that of the cocoa, but grows to a much greater
height, and is put to the same purposes. On first
seeing a grove of toddy-palms, one would suppose
that a strong wind must inevitably tear up
the whole by their roots; which consist of innumerable
small fibres, that penetrate but a very
little way, comparatively, into the soil. When
one of these trees is laid prostrate by the wind,
a very small cavity is made, rarely so much as a
cubic yard. The leaves differ very widely from
those of the cocoa: the former being rather
spear-shaped, about a foot, or more, in length,
by perhaps two inches at their broadest part, and
attached to each side of the rib, which may be
from ten to fourteen feet in length, and hang
gracefully on every side of the trunk; covering
the nuts, which grow on very short, stiff stems,
close under the place where the leaves start from
it in all directions; a tuft of similar, but smaller,
branches, grow with rather a vertical tendency.
The toddy-palm has, on the contrary, about
ten or a dozen large leaves, radiated from their
stems, arranged in folds very similar to a lady’s
fan half spread; but the outer edges are indented
considerably: the leaves form each about three-fourths
.bn 109.png
.pn +1
of a circle, but not very regularly so;
some more, some less. These are made into
punkahs, or fans, of various sizes; or, when torn
into strips of about two inches wide, which may
be about the medium breadth of each fold, serve
the natives in lieu of paper. The greater part of
the accounts kept by Bengallees are written on
these leaves, by means of any sharp-pointed
instrument, which, marking through the glossy
rind, or coating, on either side of the leaf, remains,
ever after, perfectly distinct and legible.
Those who wish to have the letters still more so,
rub the leaves, after filled with writings, with
kaujool, or lamp-black; which sinks into the
porous parts laid open by the instrument, but
easily wipes off from that portion of the surface
which has not been pierced. Some hundreds of
these leaves may be seen, secured together at
one end by a twine passed through each, like
waste paper in a grocer’s shop; thus forming a
voluminous collection. The fruit of the taul
consists of two, or sometimes three, lobes, or
pods, somewhat similar to those in a horse-chesnut,
and, like them, concealed in a pithy,
spherical coating, but with a smooth exterior.
Each lobe is hollow, and contains a small quantity
of very clear liquor, partaking, in a very
slight degree, of the flavor of rose-water; the
lobes themselves are about the size of a Chelsea-bun,
are rather of a crisp, but gelatinous substance,
.bn 110.png
.pn +1
and pleasant to the palate: their exterior
is covered with a very thin, brown rind, like that
of an almond; rather astringent, but by no
means acrid.
The liquor, called toddy, is obtained by making
an incision under the head of the tree, when,
a thin wedge being introduced, the toddy will
gradually exude into a vessel suspended to receive
it. This liquor is very pleasing when fresh
drawn, but, in a few hours, acquires a harsh flavor,
ferments, and becomes highly intoxicating.
It answers admirably as leaven, making very
light dough; but if kept, as is too commonly
done, until rather sub-acid, it communicates a
most unpleasant tartness to the bread. Groves
of toddy-trees, in some parts of the country, yield
a very handsome revenue, and great profit to
the renters. Like the cocoa-nut tree, they have
within their summits a substance very like a
cabbage in flavor: this occasions mariners sometimes
to fell them, with the view of carrying
that part to sea; where it will, if left within its
rind, keep for many months. I have tasted of
this vegetable, but did not feel much gratified,
though it assuredly was not disagreeable: it
seemed to require much boiling.
The stem of the toddy-palm is annulated,
but not very deeply: of this the toddy-men
take advantage, ascending to the summit, and
descending again to the plain, with wondrous
.bn 111.png
.pn +1
agility. This is effected by a piece of strong
twine, about a yard or more in length, but
doubled into a loop of half that extent. The
great toes are respectively put into the ends
of the loop, so as to keep it perfectly extended.
The man first embraces the tree, as high as he
can reach, for the purpose of raising himself
from the ground; his feet being instantly carried,
on opposite sides of the trunk, as far asunder as
the loop may admit. Then, sustaining himself
by means of the loop, he slides his arms upwards
to take a second spring; following, in due
time, by the removal of his feet, as much
higher as he has been able to reach. In this
manner, successively stretching up his arms,
and swarming with his feet, he reaches the
summit; where, while he either suspends the
pot, or releases it, his weight generally rests on
the loop. The great art, both in ascending, and
descending, is to keep the loop always stretched:
should it be allowed to slacken, in all probability
it would fall off. Few persons, following this
profession, require more than half a minute to
mount the highest palmira; by which name
the toddy-palm is most generally known to Europeans.
The natives designate it the taul (or
taul-gautch).
I believe very few kinds of wood, except
those I have mentioned, ever come within the
ordinary course of domestic architecture; though,
.bn 112.png
.pn +1
in some few situations, the soondry and jarrool
are employed for the minor purposes; but, with
some reserve on the part of the natives, who
hold them to be more applicable to the construction
of small craft, and to the formation of
carriages of various descriptions. The soondry
is a remarkably tough, heavy, and elastic
wood; while the jarrool, though rather harder,
more resembles the beech, than any other of our
indigenous timber trees: as a material in boat-building,
it ranks next to the teak, hence, many
of the donies, (or coasting vessels,) measuring
from fifty, to a hundred and fifty, tons, are
principally built therewith. When teak is scarce,
we occasionally see the ship-wrights apply jarrool
in their repairs of the upper works of large
vessels.
Having said thus much of the manner in
which houses, and bungalows, are constructed,
I have only to observe, that, of late years, the
European architects have been rather prone to
sacrifice comfort to appearance. Those old
houses built at a time when punkahs, tatties,
glass-sashes, &c., were not in use, certainly
evince that attention was paid to coolness, but
without disregarding convenience. Now,
although building is full fifty per cent. cheaper
than it was thirty years ago, we see the walls
much less substantial, and, on the whole, a
want of local fitness in the arrangement of the
.bn 113.png
.pn +1
several apartments. I must caution the reader,
that what would appear an admirable plan for a
residence in our climate, would be found totally
inconsistent with the temperatures attendant
upon the changes of season in India, and with
the several practices, and operations, peremptorily
necessary towards meeting those changes.
It must never be forgotten, that, at some seasons,
and at some hours in all seasons, every door and
window is usually thrown open; likewise, that,
during the continuance of the hot winds, such
apartments as cannot be kept moderately cool,
by tatties applied to some apertures on that floor,
whence the current of refrigerated air may find
admission, will be scarcely habitable, and, at
night in particular, will glow like ovens.
The hot-wind commonly rises with the sun,
blowing at first very gently, but encreasing
gradually, until about one or two o’clock; after
which, it subsides into a perfect calm. This is
its ordinary course, but some days remain calm
throughout, while, at other times, the wind blows
a hurricane the whole night through. I have,
indeed, known it to continue, with very little
change of temperature, or variation of force, for
full ten days; during which period, the nights
were, if any thing, hotter than the days; so
that extra b’heesties were retained to water the
tatties during the night. That was, to be sure,
a very singular season, carrying with it a prodigious
.bn 114.png
.pn +1
mortality; great numbers dying suddenly.
It was peculiar that the fit, which resembled
apoplexy, attacked all ages alike, and paid no
deference to the abstemious and temperate, any
more than to the licentious and gormandizing
classes.
In describing the habitations of the lower
orders of natives, I explained, that their chief
attention was paid to privacy, and to the exclusion
of the glare. The superior ranks are not
less intent upon the same objects; though many
of their state apartments do not indicate, that
either the one or the other were of the smallest
consideration. Some of the Durbars are uncommonly
exposed; and, in consequence of the
crowd, the fastidious ceremony observed, and
the constant succession of entrances and exits,
form a most uncomfortable tout ensemble. Yet,
it appears that the natives have made little or no
variation in their system, not only within the
time we have been acquainted with them, but,
if we examine their ancient structures, not
for centuries before a British foot was placed
upon their soil. We ordinarily find nearly the
same aspect given to all their buildings, especially
to their places of worship: nimauzes, (or
open temples,) where the Mussulmans are in the
habit of offering up their prayers, invariably are
made to front the west; under the idea of their
facing the shrine of Mahomed. This error may
.bn 115.png
.pn +1
be considered on a par with the placing of altars
in our churches always at the east end, with the
view to their standing towards the place of our
Saviour’s nativity: we also inter our dead with
their heads to the west, on the same account.
Having detailed what relates to the domestic
habits, and to the architecture of the country, I
shall now proceed to describe the manner of living
among Europeans in India; observing, that
there are two very distinct classes, though perfectly
on a footing; namely, the residents of
Calcutta, and those among the civil and military,
who are subject to be detached from the Presidency.
Formerly, only such gentlemen as held
offices of considerable emolument, or those who
were married, supported a regular table: such
might be said to keep open-house; at least, far
the greater number usually laid several spare
covers, especially at supper-time, under the
hope of seeing their friends drop in to partake
of whatever might be in preparation. The dinner
hour being known, (for almost every family
then dined between two and three o’clock,) it
was rarely needful to make enquiries respecting
the proper moment for repairing to the hospitable
board. Little or no ceremony was required; the
host being as much pleased with the compliment
paid by the visit of a young friend, as the latter
was to find a welcome among the most opulent
.bn 116.png
.pn +1
and respectable portion of the European community.
Nor did the benefit accruing to the latter,
confine itself within the limits of economical
saving: it was generally found, that such as
became habitually inmates of this description,
were recommended to the notice of Government,
or to such situations, (if not in the Company’s
service,) as afforded the immediate means
of maintenance, or eventually led to lucrative
speculations. A variety of instances could be
adduced, of young gentlemen having, from the
foregoing admission within the domestic circle
of visitants, been rescued from that most unpleasant
situation, namely, a want of respectable
friends; these, as Shakespeare properly remarks,
‘had greatness thrust upon them.’ Such was
the state of society when I first arrived in India,
\[1778\] and such was the fair expectation, with
which not only young gentlemen, but many
‘far advanced upon time’s list,’ landed on the
shores of the Ganges. In fact, it required that
some very substantial objection should personally
exist, to deprive any individual of an implied
right to the most friendly reception. Still, however,
it must be acknowledged, that a certain
distinction, rather too fastidious, was prevalent
in favor of those who came with appointments
to the Company’s service; especially in the civil
.bn 117.png
.pn +1
line. To a certain extent, such might have
been considered reasonable, when we reflect
that future association in the same duties was to
be expected; but, the matter was doubtless
carried too far; it being distinguished by that
kind of deference which stamps a superior value
upon its object, the whole amount of which is
deducted from the supposed inferior; thus,
causing the former to preponderate in society in
a multiplied ratio, in the same manner as taking
from one scale to put into the other, occasions
the difference to encrease in the proportion of
three to one.
The gradual encrease of commercial transactions,
and of intercourse, with several parts of
that extensive territory, which ultimately has
come under the influence, if not the control, of
the British government, served as invitations to
many adventurers, who quitted Europe under
assurances of employ in the East. Their expectations
were generally confirmed by permanent
establishments in various parts of the country;
whereby a complete change took place, as to
the estimation in which free-merchants, as they
are generally termed, were held.
Among this class, there have, within a few
years, appeared numbers, whose industry, and
extensive concerns, rendered them conspicuous;
and it would not, perhaps, be too bold to predict,
that, in the course of a few years, the
.bn 118.png
.pn +1
success of their efforts may prove a stimulus to
such an encrease of private traders, as cannot
fail to give birth to events of great national
importance.
It would not be in place to notice such probable
results in this work, but it may be permitted,
without trespassing the bounds I have
marked out to myself, to anticipate, that the
commercial society of India will, in time, grow
out of the knowledge of such as surveyed its
state some thirty years ago. We have, at the
same time, to lament, that, owing to such an
augmentation of all ranks, it has been found
necessary to drop many customs suited only to
a limitted society, and to adopt a certain reserve,
which may not be exactly conformable to those
very sanguine ideas entertained by persons who
may have read of the ancient regime of Oriental
hospitality; the declination of which has unavoidably
kept pace with the additional imports
consequent to extended commerce. There will,
however, even at this day, be found much to
approve; and the mind endued with sensibility
will have to acknowledge many a civility, very
nearly akin to kindness, and sufficiently poignant
to give an ample scope for many a grateful
acknowledgment.
Morning visits are not, generally speaking, so
uncommon as they were: formerly, few went to
pay visits of ceremony during the forenoon; for,
.bn 119.png
.pn +1
the dinner-hour being early, there was little time
for such unsocial compliments; whereas, now,
that it is generally delayed until about sun-set,
that is to say, to perhaps five, or six, or even to
seven o’clock, the forenoon is more applicable to
the reception of visitors; who, if on any terms
of intimacy, do not hesitate to join the family at
a little avant-diner commonly called a tiffing,
and known among us by the name of lunch.
This kind of refreshment (for it is not considered
a repast) usually takes place between one and
two o’clock, and consists of grilled fowls, mutton
chops, cold meats, and sometimes of curry
and rice. Being conducted without ceremony,
and in a very desultory style, the dropping in of
friends never occasions the slightest discontinuance,
any more than the accidental arrival among
an English party here, of an intimate, while partaking
of a slice of cake and a glass of wine. The
various formalities are, however, now transferred
from P. M. to A. M. and it is usual to see the
town of Calcutta thronged with palanquins during
the whole of what is called the forenoon;
but which commonly is made to extend to three
o’clock; about which time, especially during nine
months in the year, most persons are at home,
divested of their usual dresses, and reclining, in
some cool apartment, on a bed, or a couch, for
the purpose of repose, and to prepare for that
change of linen, and for those ablutions, not
.bn 120.png
.pn +1
forgetting the bath, which are both comfortable,
and essential, in so very sultry a climate.
Gentlemen who purpose visiting the ladies,
commonly repair to their houses between eight
and nine o’clock in the evening; ordinarily under
the expectation of being invited to stay and sup:
an invitation that is rarely declined.
Among ladies who are intimately acquainted,
morning visits are common, but all who wish to
preserve etiquette, or merely return the compliment
by way of keeping up a distant acquaintance,
confine them to the evening; when, attended
by one or more gentlemen, they proceed,
in their palanquins, on a tour devoted entirely
to this cold exchange of what is called civility.
Among the several justly-exploded ceremonies,
we may reckon that, which existed until
within the last twenty years, of ‘SITTING UP,’
as it was called: we must, at the same time, do
the ci-devant inhabitants of Calcutta the justice
to remark, that the practice was evidently founded
on good-will and hospitality; although it bore so
strong a resemblance to the exhibition of a cargo
of slaves, as to occasion many a caricature, and
many a satirical expenditure of ink. This ‘SITTING
UP,’ as it was termed, generally took place
at the house of some lady of rank, or fortune,
who, for three successive nights, threw open her
mansion towards the evening, for the purpose of
receiving all, both ladies and gentlemen, who
.bn 121.png
.pn +1
chose to pay their respects to such ladies as
might have recently arrived in the country. The
fair damsels were thus at once introduced to the
whole settlement, and not unfrequently obtained
a variety of offers from men of the first consequence.
Many matches have, indeed, been concluded
even before the third night of exhibition.
If we consider the fatigue attendant upon the
return of these numerous visits, (for the slightest
omission would have been an unpardonable
offence,) and that the novelty of riding in a
boçhah, (or chair-palanquin,) would not be
agreeable to all, we may form some idea of what
many a delicate female, melting with the heat,
tight-laced, and tormented with musquito-bites,
must have undergone during the performance of
this ceremony. To the gentlemen of the settlement,
it might have been abundantly pleasing;
they had nothing to do but to post about in their
palanquins from one sitting up to another, and
there either to admire, or to quiz, the fair sufferers,
according as their taste, or caprice, might
dictate. The throng has, in some lovely instances,
been so very great, that even a fourth night has
been required for the benefit of bachelors from
the interior!
The great encrease, not only of inhabitants,
but of houses, some of which are situated at an
inconvenient distance, has rendered the custom
of ‘sitting up’ nearly obsolete. The modern
.bn 122.png
.pn +1
instances of its continuance, are, indeed, so very
few, and those few so modified, as barely to
leave room for saying that it is at all in use. In
these days, a lady is received on landing by her
friends, who, generally, after a few days of repose,
and of preparation, invite their acquaintances,
to be introduced to their fair companion, who, in
the course of a week, usually returns their visits.
This is merely a partial shew, compared with
what formerly took place, and is no more than
would be practised in England on a similar occasion:
it is true, that, where superlative attractions
exist, many, who probably are not in the
habit of visiting the family, will often avail
themselves of the opportunity to chaperon some
acquaintance, merely with the intention of gaining
a peep at the goddess.
The company rarely sit long at table after
dinner, unless among those convivial souls who
deem the presence of a petticoat a perfect nuisance.
Such were formerly very numerous, but
of late, the society of the sex has been more
duly appreciated, and we see the gentlemen
quitting the bottle to retire to the chabootah, (or
terrace,) there to enjoy the cool air of the evening,
and to take a cup of tea, or to smoke their
hookahs; after which, those who have business
to attend, proceed to their offices, &c., while
the larger portion separate to partake of a family
supper with some of their female acquaintances.
.bn 123.png
.pn +1
Very little ceremony is used on such occasions;
the gentlemen leaving their hats in their palanquins,
and ordering their servants to proceed, as a
matter of course, to the houses whither their palanquins
are to be conveyed. In many instances,
these evening visits are paid in a very airy
manner: coats being often dispensed with; the
gentlemen wearing only an upper and an under
waistcoat, both of white linen, and the former
having sleeves. Such would appear an extraordinary
freedom, were it not established by custom;
though, it generally happens, that gentlemen
newly arrived from Europe, especially the
officers of his Majesty’s regiments, wear their
coats, and prefer undergoing a kind of warm
bath of the most distressing description, both to
themselves, and to their neighbours; but, in the
course of time, they fall in with the local usages,
and, though they may enter the room in that
cumbrous habit, rarely fail to divest themselves
of it, so soon as the first ceremonies are over,
in favor of an upper waistcoat, which a servant
has in readiness.
Supper, though enumerated among the ordinary
meals of a family residing at the Presidency,
seems rather to be the means of concentrating
the party, than partaken of with that keenness
we often witness in our colder climate. Few do
more than take a glass or two of wine, generally
Claret, with, perhaps, a crust, and a morsel of
.bn 124.png
.pn +1
cheese: the appetite at this hour, say ten,
being by no means keen. After supper, the
hookah is again produced, and, after sitting awhile
in conversation, the lady of the house
retires: few remain long after that has taken
place. On the whole, it may be said, that at
least four in five are in bed before twelve; or,
perhaps, before eleven o’clock. From this, I
exempt all concerned in card-parties, especially
if the stakes run high: for such, no measure, or
calculation, exists; the whole night being occasionally
passed at tradrille, which is the favorite
game, or at whist, &c. Such exceptions fortunately
are not very numerous; it would certainly
be difficult to find any city, wherein
celibacy among the males is so prevalent, as at
Calcutta, that can boast of so few excesses of
any description. The European inhabitants of
respectability certainly live well; that is, they
keep as good tables as the seasons may enable
them to furnish; and they drink none but the
best of wines: Claret, Madeira, and Port, are
in general use.
Of the former, there are two kinds; one
called ‘English Claret,’ which is the best wine
that France produces, manufactured after its
arrival in England, with an addition of Brandy,
&c., to enable its standing the hot climate of
India, and with other liquids, to give it a
richer body. Such wine generally sells at Calcutta
.bn 125.png
.pn +1
for about thirty rupees per dozen,
equal to six shillings and threepence per
bottle.
The other kind of Claret, which is the purest
that can be obtained from the most valuable
vineyards near Bourdeaux, the Coté-Roti,
Chateau Margeau, &c., can rarely be obtained,
except in times of peace, when sixteen
rupees per dozen, equal to about three shillings
and four-pence per bottle, may be considered a
fair price. This wine, however well packed,
and carefully treated, will not keep long: at
the end of six or seven months after arrival, it
will be found rather sharp, and then becomes
extremely pernicious to the bowels. When
fresh, it is remarkably fine, and delicate, and
being far lighter than the ‘English Claret,’ is
certainly best adapted to the climate. Occasionally,
a few chests of Claret are imported at
Serampore, a Danish settlement, about sixteen
miles above Calcutta, but experience has proved,
that, in regard to wholesomeness, as well as to
flavor, it is far inferior to either of the former:
the severe bowel-complaints its free use often
occasions, are attributed to the litharge with
which it is said to be fined; hence, what is
called ‘Danish Claret’ is rarely found at any
gentleman’s table.
About thirty years back, a large quantity of
.bn 126.png
.pn +1
Madeira used to be imported at Calcutta, by the
Company, in pipes of extra-measurement, for
the use of their servants. Sometimes nearly a
thousand pipes arrived during the course of the
season; being of prime quality, and laid in by
the Company’s agents at Fonchall, it always
sold well at the annual auctions: six hundred
rupees was a common average. For some time
past, the Company have, generally speaking,
declined this trade, which was of extensive convenience
to the residents at Bengal, and must
be supposed to have paid them amply for their
outward tonnage, while the returning tonnage
was always at liberty to receive investments for
the Europe market. The cause of this relinquishment
has been attributed to various
circumstances; but, I believe, is to be found in
that immense supply which, at the close of the
war in 1782, glutted the markets for some seasons.
Until that date, the Company had nearly
monopolized the trade, there being no competitors
of consequence, though the speculation
was open to all; but its excellence, which
seemed to offer full seventy pounds for every
pipe, that cost perhaps only twenty-five, or
thirty, on the Island of Madeira, induced the
French, Portugueze, and some English speculators,
to embark on vessels under Imperial
colors, and to become rivals in a trade which
.bn 127.png
.pn +1
could not bear extension beyond certain narrow
limits. All could not be supplied at Fonchall;
therefore Teneriffe, and other inferior wines,
were substituted; whereby the depreciation
even of the best genuine Madeira was enhanced,
and it fell, in consequence, full fifty per cent.
Of late years, very little of the latter has found
its way to India; the produce of the island
being almost wholly required for the Europe
market; but the merchants in that quarter have
found out the way to doctor the inferior wines of
the neighbouring isles, so as to sell them at a
good price, under the captivating titles of
‘London Particular,’ ‘London Choice Particular
Particular,’ &c. &c.
The low price to which Madeira fell, (for, in
1781-2 it had been so high as two thousand
rupees per pipe,) made a great change in the
affairs of some adventurers, who had anticipated
the golden harvest with which they were to return
to Europe. The general effects were highly
beneficial, as the greater portion of persons settled
in Calcutta, &c., were enabled to purchase
large quantities; which, being kept in godowns,
(warehouses and cellars,) gradually improved in
that hot climate, and, after a few years, became
highly valuable. Many gentlemen availed themselves
of the low state of the markets to supply
themselves abundantly; some purchased from
forty to sixty pipes, and thus secured to themselves
.bn 128.png
.pn +1
a supply of capital wine, for many years
consumption, at a certain price.
It is no uncommon thing to see Madeira, which
has been in a gentleman’s godown ten years in
the wood: many have much older wine in their
possession; a few can, indeed, boast of some,
which, though inconceivably mild, and rich in
flavor, is extremely potent. None will attempt
to produce, at their tables, Madeira that has not
been two or three years in the country; for the
new wine is neither pleasant nor wholesome,
and may be readily distinguished from the old,
notwithstanding some venders are well skilled
in the art of adding, in the course of a few hours,
many years of age to the liquor. Among the
military, it is found best to purchase wine that is
known to be of good quality, and of a certain
age; which is easily done, through the several
agency-houses; all of which have generally large
quantities, of every description, either on commission,
or at command. This mode is far preferable
to the otherwise general practice of buying
several pipes, with a view to filling up the
ullage, (say of four, from a fifth,) as the contents
decrease. By such management, any
person settled at Calcutta, or elsewhere, may,
in the course of five or six years, become possessed
of a stock of excellent Madeira; observing,
however, that, in that time, every fifth
pipe will have been drawn off, to fill up its
.bn 129.png
.pn +1
neighbours: therefore, in computing the value
of such remaining pipes, that of the pipe thus
expended must be included.
Nothing can injure a cargo of Madeira more
than the presence of a cask of coal-tar: it communicates
to the wine a most nauseous flavor,
and scent; rendering it totally unfit for use.
I recollect, about seventeen years ago, dining
with a General Officer, who had inadvertently
allowed his Madeira pipes to be smeared with
coal-tar, for the purpose of preserving them.
Whether it had that effect on the wood I never
took the trouble to enquire, but it certainly
preserved the wine; which, I doubt not, may
be in existence to this day; for it was really too
potent, even for parasitical stomachs!
The price of good Madeira wine that has been
three or four years in the country, may be generally
stated at about four hundred rupees, equal
to £50. The pipes are not so large as formerly,
but will commonly run about forty dozens;
which brings the price per dozen nearly to
twenty-five shillings, or little more than two
shillings per bottle. Wine of the first quality
may be about fifty, or even sixty, per cent.
dearer.
The Port-wine used in India is generally of a
light kind, not unlike what we term ‘Southampton
Port:’ about ten years ago, when Claret
began to be scarce, a large quantity was sent
.bn 130.png
.pn +1
out, and was bought up with readiness; but, on
account of its astringent, and, consequently,
heating, quality, it fell into disrepute. It is,
nevertheless, highly esteemed as a restorative,
especially in a convalescent state after obstinate
bowel-complaints, and in cases of debility not
proceeding from obstructions.
Such exceptions are, indeed, rare; for, I believe,
very few of the local diseases are
exempted from such connections with obstruction:
in fact, almost every ague, which is a very
common complaint in many parts of the country,
and is generally designated the ‘Hill,’ or
‘the Jungle-fever,’ according to the situation in
which it is engendered, either originates from,
or resolves into, confirmed hepatitis.
Porter, pale-ale, and table-beer of great
strength, are often drank after meals: all these
are found in the utmost perfection, for indifferent
malt-liquors do not stand the voyage; and, even
should they arrive in a sound state, would meet
no sale. A temporary beverage, suited to the
very hot weather, and called ‘country-beer,’ is
in rather general use, though water, artificially
cooled, is commonly drank during the repasts:
in truth, nothing can be more gratifying at such
a time, but especially after eating curry. Country-beer
is made of about one-fifth part porter, or
beer, with a wine glass full of toddy, (or palm-wine,
which is the general substitute for yeast,) a
.bn 131.png
.pn +1
small quantity of brown sugar, and a little grated
ginger, or the dried peel of Seville oranges, or of
limes; which are a small kind of lemon, abounding
in citric acid, and to be had very cheap.
The great cheapness and abundance of the
materials, added to the frequent and great thirst
to which Europeans are subject while resident
in India, should appear to be strong inducements
toward the free use of punch, lemonade, sangaree,
negus, &c. The reverse is the case; for,
I believe, with the exception of the lowest
classes, all such beverages are totally discarded:
they are deleterious; rarely failing, in the first
instance, to injure, and ultimately disgracing all
who yield to the temptation. Fortunately, that
temptation is not very strong; as liquors of a
superior quality are found to be more wholesome,
more pleasant, and, in the long run, not
much dearer. Besides, there is a certain odium
attaches in that quarter to all who are in
the habit of drinking spirits, whether raw or
diluted. In a climate so ungenial to European
constitutions, and where, as above said, thirst is
often very distressing, the frequent recourse to
‘brandy shrob pauny’ (brandy and water) never
fails to produce that sottishness at all times
despicable, but peculiarly unsuited to Oriental
society, in which at least the better half are men
of very liberal education, and all are gentlemen.
In saying thus much, I barely do justice to
.bn 132.png
.pn +1
the persons of whom mention is made; for it
may be said, without fear of refutation, that
fewer deviations from propriety are to be found
in our Indian settlements, than in one-tenth the
number of inhabitants of the same classes in
any other country, whose manners and properties,
either personal observation, or respectable
authors, have enabled me to estimate.
This results, not simply from the advantage
almost every individual in the Company’s service,
and in the mercantile branches, possesses,
of having been brought up in the most respectable
seminaries, &c., and of being early
initiated in the walks of decorum and integrity
among their respective friends in Europe; it
proceeds partially from the nature of the climate,
and from that mode of association which
the duties attendant upon each profession, as
well as certain localities, seem, imperiously indeed,
to inculcate.
I have before shewn that taverns, punch-houses,
&c., are by no means places of resort, as
in Europe: there is no such thing as a coffee-room,
merely as such; unless we so consider
the few mansions of certain French and English
traiteurs and restaurateurs, who occasionally have
to accommodate committees of shipping, or
town meetings, &c., and who send out dinners
to any part of the town, or its vicinity, on terms
advantageous to both parties. Therefore, under
.bn 133.png
.pn +1
such exceptions, which are rare, and setting
apart the civic operations of the beef-steak
clubs, &c., it may properly be said, that coffee-house
association is unknown in Calcutta,
at least among the respectable members of the
community. Neither does any corps in the Company’s
service keep a mess: all the officers dine
either at home, or in small parties, according as
their several fancies, or occasion, may lead them.
It is common to hear one or two of a party, before
they retire from table, which is always done
without the least ceremony, enquire, who will
dine with them the next day? Thus, it is
extremely easy to avoid any obnoxious person,
be the objection to him what it may; and as the
omission of any individual, from the ordinary
course of invitations of such a description, soon
produces explanation, it is impossible that a
person of unpleasant manners, or of an indifferent
character, can, for any length of time,
stand his ground; the whole circle, by degrees,
drop his acquaintance, while, in lieu of that
friendly and familiar salutation which denotes
approbation, the shunned offender experiences
the most distant, and most forbidding reserve.
Being once condemned, something more than
ordinary must appear to produce his re-admission:
for the most part, especially if habitual
inebriation be in question, the unhappy man
pursues his career, either until the grave may
.bn 134.png
.pn +1
receive his dropsical remains, or the Invalid
Establishment affords him an asylum against the
mortifying neglect of his late associates.
This kind of retirement, of course, can only
apply to military characters, and certainly does
infinite credit to the humanity of those who
tolerate the measure. It may, probably, be
urged, that such an institution should not be
open to persons retiring merely in consequence
of indulgence in depravity; or because
they are no longer acceptable among their former
associates: it may be asserted, that the admission
of such men within so honorable a pale,
must be injurious both to the character of the
corps, and to the feeling of those meritorious
individuals who are compelled by wounds, &c.,
to accept the benefits of that establishment.
This is undeniable; but when we consider, that,
perhaps, after long service in an oppressive
climate, the best of us may be brought to that
kind of conduct which disqualifies from military
service, it may not be too much to assert, that the
concession and indulgence thus granted, are at least
charitable, and often incontrovertibly merited.
Among the gentlemen of the civil service,
the society is far less diversified than with us in
Europe; therefore, much facility is afforded towards
the evasion of intercourse with persons in
any way unacceptable. It must at the same
time be remarked, that, in this instance, the most
.bn 135.png
.pn +1
liberal consideration is very generally exhibited;
and, that so long as any hope of reform may
remain, there will rarely be found a disposition
to exile a man from that converse with his
countrymen, without which he can neither preserve
the appearance of respectability among the
natives, nor, in all probability, receive the approbation
of Government. Hence, what we commonly
call a ‘black-sheep,’ is a most marked,
and equally forlorn character, throughout the
East; and, consequently, is very scarce.
Many years ago, when it was customary for
the Governor-General, and some of the leading
gentlemen, such as the Members of Council,
&c., to have public breakfasts weekly, persons
of all characters mixed promiscuously at table;
good and bad were to be seen around the same
tea-pot. This occasioned a native of some consequence
to remark, that, ‘among Europeans,
all who wore a hat and breeches were gentlemen.’
The sarcasm was not, however, quite applicable;
for, the breakfast being considered merely the
preface to a levee, it was to be expected that, on
such occasions, persons of every description
would be seen, who, having public business to
transact at the levee, naturally availed themselves
of the opportunity, without reference to the
opinions of others regarding their private conduct.
After the arrival of Marquis Cornwallis,
these public breakfasts were discontinued, and
.bn 136.png
.pn +1
open levees substituted. This was certainly
pleasanter for both the Governor and the governed.
However, there are, to this day, I believe,
some remains of the former ceremony preserved,
among a few of the principal gentry; who, on
certain days, expect to see their friends, and
such others as may wish to consult them. Some
have two levees, if we may so designate them,
weekly; one for Europeans, and one for natives;
but such cannot be considered official.
A breakfast in India bears a strong resemblance
to the same meal in Scotland, with the exception
of whiskey; the introduction of which, (if to be
had,) or of any other spirits, would be considered
both nauseous and vulgar. The general bill of
fare, at this time, consists of tea, coffee, toast,
bread, butter, eggs, rice, salt-fish, kitchery, (a
kind of olio,) various sweetmeats prepared in
the country, especially preserved ginger, and
orange marmalade, honey, &c.; and, after hunting
or shooting, occasionally cold meat, with
proper accompaniments.
During a great portion of the year, breakfast
may be considered rather a substantial meal.
The generality of European gentlemen rise about
day-break, and either proceed to the parade, to
their field diversions, or to ride on horseback, or
on elephants; thus enjoying the cool air of the
morning. From the middle of March to the
middle of October, the sun is very powerful,
.bn 137.png
.pn +1
even when the atmosphere is overcast with clouds
of great density. This induces all who ride for
health, or for pleasure, to avoid violent exercise;
they proceeding, generally in small parties, each
gentleman being attended by his syce, who carries
a whisk made of horse-hair, fastened to a short
lacquered stick, for the purpose of driving away
the flies, which are generally very troublesome
both to the horses and to their riders. It is not
uncommon to see the backs of the latter covered
with these noxious parasites, which, by their
buzzing, and their attempts to alight on the face,
produce extreme irritation. During some part
of the year, when scarce a leaf is in motion, and
the clouds hang very low, exercise, even so early
in the morning, is often found more injurious
than refreshing: at such seasons, nothing but the
abundant perspiration which then relaxes the
whole frame, and absolutely oozes through the
light cloathing in common use, could prevent
the occurrence of diseases highly inflammatory.
Many feel so uneasy, in consequence of this
unpleasant exudation, as to be induced to change
their linen three or four times within the day;
but, however refreshing such a change may prove,
it is by no means to be commended; experience
proving that considerable prostration of strength
is the inseparable consequence of so ill-judged
an indulgence. The best plan is, to have night
apparel, and to ride out in the linen worn during
.bn 138.png
.pn +1
the preceding evening; changing for a clean suit
on returning, so as to sit down to breakfast in
comfort.
Those who are subject to bile cannot be too
cautious in regard to their diet; which should
be rather sparing, and confined to viands dressed
in a simple manner. Many gentlemen of the
faculty, in England, entertain an opinion, that
eggs, moderately boiled, are rather beneficial,
than otherwise, in bilious cases: the idea they
entertain is, that the yolk assimilates with the
bile, and carries it off. But practice is better
than theory; and it is to be wished, that such
as maintain the above hypothesis could view the
number of patients who may be said to owe their
pains and sorrows merely to the practice of eating
eggs for breakfast. In this climate, to a
person possessing a robust constitution, and
whose stomach might vie with that of an
ostrich, eggs may be innocent; but, in the East,
where relaxation weakens the powers of digestion,
they are by no means a proper article of
diet. If, as physicians assert, assimilation takes
place, it assuredly is on the wrong side of the
question; for I believe all oriental practitioners
will allow, that the bile is considerably augmented,
but not carried off, by eggs.
However grateful many of the other items,
such as salt-fish, &c., may be, they certainly
cannot tend much to the preservation of health;
.bn 139.png
.pn +1
therefore, should be discarded from the breakfast
table. I speak feelingly; for, although I did not
possess sufficient resolution to withstand what
then appeared a very alluring temptation, I have
now the candor to confess, that thirst, heat, and
uneasiness were generally attendant upon my
imprudence, and no doubt occasioned me to
swallow many a nauseous dose, which might
have been avoided by a moderate share of discretion.
Therefore, let me strongly recommend
to those of my juvenile readers who may be
about to proceed to India, not to indulge in
breakfasts such as I have described.
The tea used in India is generally what we
call green, or hyson; very little bohea being
drank. It is very rarely that either kind can be
obtained good; indeed, the climate speedily
renders tea unfit for use, if at all exposed to the
air: on this account, leaden catties of various
sizes, but generally containing from four to ten
pounds, are employed for preserving it. These
catties fit in pairs, or, if large, singly, into neat
boxes provided with locks. But little tea being
sold retail, it is usual for a few friends, perhaps
three or four, to club, and buy a chest; which
may be had for about 150, or even so high as
200 rupees (£25). This, however, is not the
price of the best teas, which occasionally sell for
nearly double the latter sum, unless there may
be a very large supply at market; when, as it is
.bn 140.png
.pn +1
a very perishable commodity, the prices sometimes
fall even below prime cost. To say the
truth, it rarely matters much whether the tea be
good, or bad; for it is always made at a side-table
by some menial who knows nothing of the
matter, and who never tastes it himself: hence,
a cup of good tea is really a rarity; which must
appear extraordinary, when it is recollected that
many vessels import at Calcutta in five or six
weeks only from China.
The Arabs now convey immense quantities of
fine coffee from Mocha to every part of India;
but they sell it at a high price, generally from
forty to sixty rupees, or even more, per maund
of 82lb.; which brings it, at the latter rate, to
3s. 9d. per lb. in its raw state. Bourbon and
the Mauritius raise coffee, but of an inferior
quality; and, within these few years, considerable
plantations have been formed at Chittagong;
but the produce, though abundant, cannot compare
with even the French coffee.
I have often had coffee that tasted very salt,
and rather bitter, the cause of which was then
unknown to me; but a gentleman, who was ‘up
to the trick,’ assured me it was occasioned by
the frazils (or baskets) being immersed in seawater,
in order to give the berries that greenish,
horny appearance, which is supposed to be the
indication of a superior quality.
Sugar-candy is always used for making tea,
.bn 141.png
.pn +1
coffee, and, indeed, for all such purposes: it is to
be had of various degrees of purity, and either
of indigenous manufacture, or imported from
China. The former kind is sold by the maund,
and may be estimated at from twenty to forty
rupees; the latter in tubs made of thin deal, and
other light wood, in which the candy is packed
among dried bamboo-leaves. The price of a
tub is usually about twenty rupees, (more or
less, as the markets may stand,) for which about
sixty pounds weight are obtained.
Although the sugar-cane is, by many, supposed
to be indigenous in India, yet it has
only been within the last fifty years that it has
been cultivated to any great extent: since the
failure which took place some twenty years back
in the West Indies, it has become a most important
article of commerce. Strange to say,
the only sugar-candy used until that time was
received from China; latterly, however, many
gentlemen have speculated deeply in the manufacture,
and, by serving themselves richly, have
rescued the country from a very impolitic
branch of imposition. We now see sugar-candy,
of the first quality, manufactured in various
parts of Bengal, and, I believe it is at length admitted,
that the raw sugars from that quarter are
pre-eminently good. I have lately had occasion to
purchase some of a very superior fineness, called
Soonamooky, from a place of that name in the
.bn 142.png
.pn +1
Burdwan district, which was as high as eleven-pence
per pound.
About thirty-two years ago, the common raw
sugar, known by the name of g’hoor, was to be
had at three rupees per maund of 96lb. in the
upper provinces: this was about three farthings
per pound; for a Sonaut or Tersooly rupee then
was exchanged at about two shillings, or even so
low as one shilling and ten-pence. In consequence
of the great demand for the article, it
rose gradually, but in comparatively a very short
time, to eight rupees the maund of 72lb.; and
it has been so high as twelve rupees, but not, I
believe, for any length of time: partial instances
could be quoted, of even fourteen rupees being
given.
The superior kind, which may often be had
nearly white, at least of a dove color, perfectly
dry, and sharp grained, under the name of
cheeny, was formerly about seven, or eight,
rupees per maund (of 96lb.); of late, it has
risen to full fifteen; and has been up to twenty.
The sugar-candy made in India, where it
is known by the name of miscery, bears a price
suited to its quality: some may be had at twenty,
and some up as high as forty, rupees per maund
(82lb). It is usually made in small conical pots,
whence it concretes into masses, weighing from
three to six pounds each.
For further information, I must refer my
.bn 143.png
.pn +1
readers to Mr. Colebrooke’s excellent Essay on
the Husbandry of Bengal.
Bread is not made of flour, but of the heart of
the wheat, which is very fine, ground into what
is called soojy; a kind of meal, so far from
being pulverized, as to bear a strong resemblance
to rather coarse sand. Soojy is kneaded the
same as is done with flour, but there being
no yeast in the country, (I mean such as we
know by that name,) it is leavened by means of
toddy; which is the juice obtained by making
incisions into the taul, (or palm-tree,) already
described. In many parts of India, taul trees
are very scarce, and are carefully preserved for
the sake of the toddy, which is sold to the nonbaies,
(or bakers,) at a high price. In Bahar
these trees are peculiarly abundant: there we
often see groves, of hundreds upon hundreds,
let out to the kulwars, or distillers, to great advantage.
These venders of misery have the art
of rendering the toddy peculiarly potent, by
causing it to work upon the kernels of the datura,
that grows wild in every part of India, and
possesses in every part, whether the stem, root,
leaf, or nut, a most deleterious property.
Toddy, that has been strongly impregnated with
datura, (which is the name it bears in the East,)
acts very rapidly on the brain; producing mania,
and, not unfrequently, apoplexy, when drank to
excess.
.bn 144.png
.pn +1
The bread is usually made into small loaves,
weighing about a pound each; these are called
‘single-loaves’ and may generally sell from
fifteen, to twenty, for a rupee; which brings
the bread to about three half-pence, to two-pence,
per pound. ‘Double loaves’ include double
the weight, and sell in proportion. A large
portion, of both sizes, is baked in tin moulds,
of a brick form; these are generally preferred,
on account of their rarely scorching, and not
requiring to be rasped, as all the other bread,
baked in the form of heavy cakes, generally
does.
Soojy, (the basis of the bread,) is frequently
boiled into ‘stir-about’ for breakfast; and
eaten with milk, salt, and butter; though some
of the more zealous may be seen to moisten
with porter; a curious medley, by no means to
my taste! Nor is much to be said of its qualities;
as few stomachs are suited to its reception.
The camp-oven in common use, consists
merely of a very large naud, or pot, capable of
containing from thirty to fifty gallons, and of
rather a conical form. This vessel is prepared
for the purpose, by having a hole punched
through its bottom, large enough to admit a
man’s arm; it is then placed, mouth downwards,
over a corresponding cavity, dug out of the soil,
so as to fit close every way; but, in order to
.bn 145.png
.pn +1
allow a proper draught of air, two, or more,
sloping apertures are left, passing under the
circumference of the naud. The vessel is next
well covered with turf, &c., and thus rendered
capable of retaining considerable heat, long
enough to bake small bread. The interior being
filled with chips of wood, charcoal, gutties, (i.e.
dried cow-dung,) or any other kind of fuel that
may be at hand, a strong fire is kept up in it,
until the naud appears to be nearly at a red heat.
The hole, which served for a chimney, is
then closed; and, the embers being withdrawn,
the bread is introduced upon pieces of iron
plate, or of tin, or boards, or leaves, &c., &c.
I should here remark, that the natives invariably
eat unleavened bread, generally made of
wheaten, or of barley-meal; which, being made
into a good dough, is flattened into cakes, called
chow-patties, between the hands, with very great
dexterity. Such cakes are then either put at the
edges of the heated choolah, or fire-place, or they
are baked upon a convex plate of iron, circular,
and about ten inches, or a foot, in diameter.
This plate, called a towah, is precisely the same
as the girdle made in Scotland for baking their
oaten bread, and is used in the same manner.
Milk is to be had in abundance throughout
India, especially among the Hindus, who venerate
the cow, and follow all occupations relating
to the dairy; but, owing to the general custom
.bn 146.png
.pn +1
of smoking the insides of whatever vessels are
allotted to its reception, will not be obtainable in
such a state as suits the palate of an European,
unless a clean pitcher, &c., be sent to the gwallah,
or cow-keeper, that the cow may be milked
into it.
That fuliginous taste, to us so obnoxious, is
perfectly palatable, and perhaps agreeable, to
the natives; who assign, as the reason for smoking
their vessels, that it prevents the milk from
turning. It, however, becomes a question,
whether or not the operation of scalding, always
performed when practicable, while the milk
is warm, be not the true preventive against
acidulation. Certain it is, that sour milk is
very rarely found in India, although, for full half
the year, the thermometer is generally up between
75°, and 95°, in the shade; and, in a Bengallee
hut, frequently rising to 110°, or more!
The milk obtained from buffaloes is certainly
much richer than that from cows; yet, the
butter produced from the former is very inferior,
generally white, and brittle: it, however,
possesses qualities suiting it admirably to the
climate, and occasioning the natives to give it
the preference. After being warmed to a certain
degree, so as to become rather liquified,
it is kept nearly stationary in that state for a
long time; whereby it loses its aqueous particles,
and is rendered fit for keeping. When
.bn 147.png
.pn +1
thus treated, it is called ghee. Others deviate
from this tedious process, and, by exposing it to
a greater heat, keeping it simmering for some
time, effect the purpose more speedily, but not
without danger of burning, or, at least, of giving
it a certain empyreumatic flavor. Few of the
natives will touch cow-butter, to which they attribute
many bad effects, though they will drink
ghee by the quart, and pride themselves not
a little in being able to afford so luscious an enjoyment.
The uncontrolled expenditure of this
article, among those whose purses will bear
them out in the indulgence, though it may tend
to that obesity of which they are inordinately
vain, cannot but contribute greatly to the generation
of those bilious diseases which so often
attack the more opulent natives. Ghee and idleness
may be said to give birth to half their
ailings. As an article of commerce, ghee
possesses some claim to importance; many
thousands of maunds being sent every season
from some of the grazing districts, such as Purneah,
and Sircar-sarun, to the more cultivated
parts, and especially to the western provinces.
The ghee is generally conveyed in dubbahs, or
bottles made of green hide, which, being freed
from the hair, and worked up while in a pliant
state, into the form of a caraboy, such as we use
for spirits of turpentine, &c., will keep sweet for
a long time, provided the mouth of the vessel be
.bn 148.png
.pn +1
well closed. In this manner it is conveyed by
water in dubbahs, often measuring nearly a hogshead;
but a smaller kind, containing, perhaps,
from fifteen to twenty gallons each, are made for
the purpose of being slung across the backs of
bullocks, by which it is carried to places situated
at a distance from navigable streams. The price
of ghee varies according to the demand, and to
its quality: generally, from six to eight seers of
2lb. each may be had for a rupee in favorable
situations; otherwise, it will be from thirty to
fifty per cent. dearer. It may be supposed that
buffaloes’ milk must possess a very considerable
portion of cream, when it is stated, that milk is
considered very cheap at 30 seers (or quarts) for
a rupee, and that five seers of ghee, equal to one-sixth
of the mass of milk, may be had for the
same sum, in almost any part of the country.
According to this proportion, we find that
one-sixth part of the milk turns to butter;
whereas, in this country, a cow, yielding twenty
gallons of milk within the week, will rarely
produce ten pounds of butter; which is equal
to only one-eighth part of the mass of milk:
it must, indeed, be a good cow that will produce
that quantity.
The d’hoob grass, which grows wild in almost
every part of the country, is peculiarly nutritious;
but the food of cattle, of all descriptions,
throughout India, is more dry and solid than is
.bn 149.png
.pn +1
offered to cows in England. Hence, though
the quantity of milk yielded by a buffalo, may
not be equal to that of an English cow of equal
weight, the produce in butter, from an equal
quantity of milk, will be in favor of the former.
I have already stated the difficulty of getting
milk devoid of the taste of smoke; this arises
from the cause already described, and is encreased
by the very small proportion of milk
yielded by the cows in India, which are, with
few exceptions, white, and rarely grow larger
than the generality of yearlings, or steers, bred
in England. In some grazing districts they
thrive well, attaining to full thirteen hands in
height, and weighing, when fit for the butcher,
from four to five hundred weight: but such are
merely local, and not very numerous. Butter
produced from cows’ milk is very indifferent,
unless carefully made from such as are well fed.
The number of gentlemen keeping dairies is
extremely confined, perhaps less than ten for
all India: they certainly obtain excellent butter,
but that sold by the muckun-wallahs, (i.e.
the butter-men,) would appear, to a stranger,
not to be made from the same species of
animals. Considering the price of a cow, which
may be averaged at from four rupees to eight,
(i.e. from ten to twenty shillings,) it is remarkably
dear, as is usually the case with articles
of inferior quality: thus, we consider three
.bn 150.png
.pn +1
pounds for a rupee to be a fair rate, though
sometimes four may be had; but such can only
happen where cattle are very abundant; for, as I
have already said, buffaloes, and not cows, are
almost invariably kept by the natives for their
milk, on account of their greater produce, and
because the ghee made from their butter is more
appreciated. We may, therefore, estimate the
pound of cow-butter at nine-pence; whereas,
ghee rarely sells for more than three-pence: a
strange disproportion; to be attributed, in some
measure, to the demand for the former being
confined to the Europeans.
In speaking of the berriarah, or shepherd, I
have already noticed, that, for the supply of their
tea-tables, gentlemen usually keep a few goats,
which afford milk of a remarkably fine quality,
and are herded in company with those store
sheep intended to supply vacancies among the
fatting stock. The kids produced, generally
twice in the year, by each milch-goat, (mostly
twins, and not unfrequently trins, or even four,
at a birth,) serve to keep up the number of the
flock, besides yielding occasionally a most delicate
viand for the table. I know not of any meat
more sweet, or wholesome, than that of a kid
allowed to suck the mother at pleasure: it is as
white, and, in proportion, as fat as any veal.
Being in general request, and admirably suited to
making rich curries, as also roasting remarkably
.bn 151.png
.pn +1
well, kid-meat may be had of any butcher; the
usual price being a rupee for a whole kid, and in
proportion for halves and quarters. When of a
good size, and duly fatted, an entire one may
weigh about six pounds; which brings the meat
to five-pence per pound.
By the word butcher, we are not to understand
the individual to be a shop-keeper, exposing
the several joints of various animals for sale,
in that pleasing mode of exhibition so common
in our markets. On the contrary, a fat kussee
(i.e. cut-goat,) or two, and two or three kids,
daily, with, now and then, a half-fatted ox
during the cold months, may be said to comprize
the whole business of one of this profession in
full trade; indeed, a first-rate knight of the
cleaver! The greater part of the profit arising to
this class, is derived from slaughtering oxen,
calves, pigs, sheep, and kids, for families; for
which labor they ordinarily receive a few annas,
(or two-pences,) according to the size of the
animal: in most instances they take the skin,
pluck, and, of some, the head, as a perquisite.
It is impossible to produce finer mutton than
is served upon table in India; nor can there be
finer beef than is to be seen in most cantonments,
and among fixed residents. At some of the
principal military and civil stations, those gentlemen
who keep a regular table, usually fatten
several bullocks for winter slaughtering. Some
.bn 152.png
.pn +1
of these are fed full two years, with that intent,
on gram; and, exclusive of being burthened with
fat on the kidneys, &c., have their flesh absolutely
marbled by the admixture of fat among the
fleshy parts. Sometimes, the officers of a regiment
club to fatten four or five head, the joints
of which are either divided according to mutual
concurrence, or drawn for by lot: this supplies
fresh beef during the winter season; very few
bullocks being killed at any other time, on account
of the extreme difficulty of curing the
meat. To persons inexperienced as to the hasty
strides of putrefaction in hot climates, this forbearance
from beef, for so large a portion of the
year, might appear unnecessary; but the fact
is, that, during the close weather, prevalent
throughout the rains, and for a certain part
of the hot season, meat, though killed only
about midnight, will often become absolutely
putrid long before the time at which it ought to
be on the spit; and that, too, in spite of every
precaution!
The markets at Calcutta are open at daybreak;
when very fine meat, of every kind, together
with various sorts of choice fish, fruits,
vegetables, &c., may be had on very reasonable
terms. There, indeed, beef may sometimes be
seen in the hottest weather; because, being cut
up into small joints, a bullock may be readily
sold off among so many customers; but, in
.bn 153.png
.pn +1
general, the prime pieces, together with all the
best fish, &c., will have been bought up by sunrise:
the refuse joints are generally taken by the
Portugueze, (who are the only customers for
bazar-pork,) and by Europeans of the lower
classes, or by persons who supply the shipping.
The whole of the non-commissioned and
privates, in the several regiments of Europeans,
are served with meat, rice, spirits, and fire-wood,
by contract; receiving their several quotas early
in the morning, under the inspection of their
commissioned officers, who make their reports
regarding any deficiencies, either in quantity, or
of quality.
Those gentlemen who produce pork at their
tables, are extremely particular as to the manner
in which their pigs are fed. Many are so
extremely fastidious, as not to allow any to
be served up unless educated, as it is called, in
their own sties; the very circumstance of being
born elsewhere, absolutely disqualifying, and
rendering of no avail, all that change of bulk,
and all that purification, derived from perhaps a
whole year of confinement to a clean stye; in
which nothing but the best corn (gram) is given
to the grunting inhabitant. This, certainly, is
carrying daintiness to an extreme; but it must
be confessed, that swine are so offensively
greedy in the indulgence of their appetites in
that part of the world, as to give occasion for
.bn 154.png
.pn +1
many very reasonable scruples regarding the use
of bazar-pork; which is indiscriminately killed
from the fattest of those wanderers that sometimes
absolutely interrupt the operations of the
multitude, who resort, generally at dusk, and at
day-break, to lay their offerings at the shrine of
a certain deity!
This calls to mind a very laughable circumstance
which happened at Berhampore, in 1803.
An officer, who had been many years at
Gibraltar, where a joint of meat, of any kind,
was probably snapped up without any questions
being asked as to its education, produced at his
table a very fine corned leg of pork, of which all
his guests ate with great avidity. One of them,
when the repast was over, begged leave to
enquire how the gentleman kept his pigs; what
had been then on table, being of so superior a
flavor, that he presumed it was educated in some
very particular manner. ‘Oh no,’ answered
the host, ‘I never trouble my head about sties;
my man bought a whole side of it this morning
of Neeloo the butcher, for eight annas’ (15d.)
This untimely disclosure operated not only like
magic, but like emetic tartar; the whole company
were taken with violent sickness, and retired
to give vent, both to the pork, and to their
feelings, on so dreadful an occasion. However,
none died in consequence of having been thus
poisoned; but the whole station received the
.bn 155.png
.pn +1
tale with horror, and resolved, to a man, never
to accept another invitation from the unfortunate
hero of the rock!
Whether it be owing to the foregoing cause,
or, that the time necessary for the completion of
a pig’s ‘education,’ be too protracted to allow of
persons, subject to removal, engaging in that
branch of domestic economy, may be difficult
to determine, but certain it is, that very few
officers have piggeries; they commonly content
themselves with hams and cheeks imported to
them from England. The grossness of the viand
is, however, so very inappropriate to the climate,
that, even after the most delicate course of
management, pork is by no means considered a
choice dish: sucking pigs are more generally
approved.
Veal is so very seldom to be obtained in the
market, of a quality fit to be brought to table,
that it is customary for four or five friends to
subscribe for the purpose of rearing calves for
their own expenditure; each taking a share of
every calf that is slaughtered. The best, and most
economical plan, is to agree with some butcher,
through whose means alone it can in general be
effected, to receive of him a cow and calf, the
latter being newly born, and to return him the
mother, after the calf may have been killed, together
with four rupees (10s.) By this mode,
the calf will thrive admirably, provided the cow
.bn 156.png
.pn +1
be well fed; but it is usual, and I have practised
it with great success, to give the little one as
much scalded milk as it can drink, three times
daily; drenching it with either a horn, or a
quart-bottle: from three to four quarts, in each
of which the yolk of a fresh egg is beat up, will
commonly produce the desired effect, rendering
the meat very fine by the end of a month; the
usual age at which they are slaughtered. What
with the keep of the mother, the milk and eggs
given to the calf, and the necessary attendance,
a gold-mohur, (£2.,) will generally be expended
upon each calf, unless several be kept together
as a successive supply for the table; in which
case, about twelve rupees will be found the
average expence. In this, I reckon the out-lay
upon a calf that will now and then, perhaps one
in five, prove a bad subject; and, notwithstanding
every precaution, either scour or pine.
It is a great misfortune that, on account of the
extreme antipathy the horned cattle of India
always exhibit towards Europeans, no possibility
exists for remedying many bad practices, and
neglects, to which these animals are subject,
when under the care of the native servants.
An Indian ox, or cow, when at liberty, is always
shunned very carefully, lest it should indulge its
savage disposition. On first entering that country,
the cattle would be supposed to be wild,
instead of domesticated; for not one in a thousand
.bn 157.png
.pn +1
will admit the approach of an European;
nor are they always less gentle towards strangers
of any description. As to what are called tame
buffaloes, they are commonly more fierce than
any British bull, and, when they have calves at
their sides, make no scruple of attacking man
and horse, with unbounded ferocity. Hence,
it is extremely proper to be very cautious of
approaching herds, or single cattle of either
kind, even when tolerably mounted. Sometimes,
in riding through the country, and especially
where jeels (lakes) are to be forded, or
pools to be passed, the unwary traveller may
find himself, on a sudden, within a few yards
of a whole herd of buffaloes, which, to avoid
the heat of mid-day, wallow in the muddy
water, so deep as to have, in general, only
their noses and eyes above the surface. Being,
perhaps, among rushes, &c. even those parts are
not discernible, or, if in an open expanse, may
be easily mistaken for clods of mud; for the
horns lie back towards the false ribs. On a
sudden, the whole herd sometimes rise, and
at the least frighten the horse, whatever the
rider’s heart may be made of: such a surprize,
and from animals that, according to the old saying,
‘give but a word and a blow, and the blow
comes first,’ is far from pleasant. In such
situations, all depends on the conduct of the
leading bull; if he snorts, shakes his horns, and
.bn 158.png
.pn +1
advances, the danger is imminent. But it
frequently happens, that, whether owing to
lassitude, or the absence of any object particularly
irritating to buffaloes, of which a red
coat may be considered the extreme, the herd
content themselves with rising from their reclined
postures, and, after those who rouzed
them may have passed on, again sink into
the friendly pool.
The British settlers in India are extremely
indebted to the Dutch for many essential improvements.
The small town of Chinsurah,
situate about twenty-eight miles north of
Calcutta, on the banks of the Hoogly river,
has, in this instance, proved serviceable to India
at large. The Dutch, to whom that place
appertained before the war, were the first to
introduce the culture of that invaluable esculent,
the potatoe; which was received from their
settlement at the Cape of Good Hope: they
likewise were the first to exhibit any disposition
towards horticulture. From them the British
received, annually, the seeds of every kind of
vegetable useful at the table, as well as several
plants of which there appeared much need, especially
various kinds of pot-herbs. They likewise
supplied us with vines, from which innumerable
cuttings have been dispensed to every
part of Bengal and its upper dependencies.
The whole of the lower provinces, at least,
.bn 159.png
.pn +1
those parts skirting the ranges of hills that
bound them, produce immense quantities of
wild vines, which, during the rains, may be
seen partially to bear grapes of a red color, and
about the size of a pistol-ball. These vines tower
over the high saul trees, or creep along the rocky
masses, throughout the Ramghur district especially,
in all the majesty of wild luxuriance.
Here is a field for speculation! Let us suppose,
that the wines which should be raised
might not prove of the best quality, still we might
derive the most important advantages from the
brandy and vinegar to which they might be converted.
As to wood for the staves, and iron for
the hoops, they are both to be had on the
spot; and, in regard to distillation, abundance
of men, sufficiently skilled, may be found among
the natives. Fuel is every where abundant, indeed,
a perfect nuisance. The only impediment
I could ever discover, is, that the neighbouring
streams are not generally navigable, or, perhaps,
only for a few months in the year: they might,
however, be easily rendered adequate to every
purpose, there being lime-stone in various adjacent
hills, while, among the convicts, who are
in a state of idleness for the most part, many
persons might be selected fully capable of constructing
whatever masonry, or timber-work,
should be found necessary.
Some years ago, I had the honor of submitting
.bn 160.png
.pn +1
this suggestion to the Court of Directors. The
India minister of that day was forcibly struck
with the facility obviously afforded of founding
an immense national concern: and, had he
remained in office, would probably have taken
means to ascertain every point contained in my
memoir, with the utmost exactitude: the result
must have been perfectly satisfactory.
When we consider, that the Company pay
two lacs of rupees (£25,000.) yearly for spirits,
of a very inferior quality, for the use of the European
soldiery; and, that good vinegar cannot
be had under two rupees per gallon, (5s.) it
should seem an object, even in that limitted
view, to cultivate the vine for their own use;
but, if we extend the prospect, and shew that
any quantity of brandy, if not of wine, might be
imported from Bengal, the benefits will be found
so great, as to claim every encouragement on
the part of the legislature. It appears highly
probable, that full a million sterling would be
annually saved to the nation, by its adoption of
this speculation; which might be began at little
or no expence, and be progressively extended,
by giving employment to the whole body of convicts,
who now are a heavy burthen on the
revenue, without doing a thousandth part of the
service of which they are physically capable. If
my information be correct, there are now sold at
Calcutta near four thousand pipes of Madeira,
.bn 161.png
.pn +1
Teneriffe, &c., annually, and about as many
chests of Claret, including French and English;
the quantity of Brandy imported at that settlement
is full 10,000 gallons, besides Hollands,
Rum, and other liquors, of which I shall make
no account. The licences granted for the retail
of spirits are amply abundant; and the number
of shops where Toddy, Mowah, Pariah Arrack,
&c., are served out, absolutely incalculable.
From the best computation I have been enabled
to make, full 10,000,000 gallons of spirits
are made and sold in Bengal and its dependant
provinces, the average of which may be taken at
one rupee per gallon, as it comes from the still;
the retail prices will, no doubt, double that sum;
making no less than 20,000,000 of rupees, equal
to £2,500,000 expended annually by debauchees,
and by the regular consumption among the soldiery,
&c. If the foregoing items be put together,
they must make a tremendous total; while
we shall see, that a most ruinous intercourse
prevails, throwing money into the pockets of our
rivals, and enabling them to carry home investments
in exchange for their own produce. We
shall further see, that, supposing a duty of only
25 per cent. were imposed on all spirits sold,
exclusive of the amount of licences, which are
very trivial, no less than £625,000. would annually
flow into the treasury. This may appear a
.bn 162.png
.pn +1
very large sum, but, when it is recollected that
the manufacture of salt, monopolized by the
Company, yields, on the average of several years,
the sum of £1,500,000., (after deducting about
£525,000. for the expences of boiling, &c.,) we
may fairly consider the above computation to be
far within the bounds of probability.
Rum is made in Bengal from refuse sugar,
the same as in the West Indies; its quality is
by no means inferior, though it sells, when new,
at the very cheap rate of about a rupee the gallon.
It is to be had, of a good age, of the several
great distillers and merchants, at a proportionate
advance. I have known it, after being
six years in the godown, (warehouse,) to be compared
with Jamaica Rum, warranted ten years
old; when the preference was given decidedly
in favor of the former. With respect to arrack,
which is in a manner peculiar to the East;
the native distillers produce excellent alcohol,
which, after being properly rectified, and kept
for some years, proves an admirable spirit, supposed
to be far more wholesome than rum.
Though, on the whole, the fish brought to
the Calcutta markets, cannot be compared with
such as we see at Billingsgate, &c., there are,
nevertheless, some kinds, which might please
the most dainty epicure. The hilsah, (or sable
fish,) which seems to be mid-way between a
.bn 163.png
.pn +1
mackarel and a salmon, whether for form, general
appearance, or flavor, is, perhaps, the richest
fish with which any cook is acquainted. It
abounds so with fat, that most persons, after
being served with a portion, immerse it in boiling
water, brought in a soup-plate; thereby
causing a large quantity of grease to float.
When baked in vinegar, or preserved in tamarinds,
the hilsah is remarkably fine.
Like the salmon, these run up to the very
spring-heads, seeming to abound more and more
in proportion as they approximate thereto;
though certainly they grow to the largest size,
immediately within the tide’s reach: getting
beyond that, they dart up as far as possible
during the season, returning, after spawning, to
the sea. They are in perfection towards the
latter end of the rains.
The bickty, (or cockup,) very strongly resembles
the jack, and grows to an enormous size.
I have seen one measuring more than eight feet
in length, and various others that weighed full
a maund (82lb.) The average size at which
they are brought to market, may be from
eighteen, to thirty, inches in length; and their
weight from two to ten, or twelve, pounds.
They flake like cod, to which also their flavor
greatly assimilates.
Soles, of a diminutive size, are sometimes to
be had at Calcutta: the natives call them kookoor
.bn 164.png
.pn +1
jibbys, (i.e. dogs’ tongues,) in allusion to
their shape. These are sometimes caught in the
brackish waters, among the bicktys, or cockups,
or in the flat sands about Diamond-Harbour, &c.
Prawns of a very good size, and very small crayfish,
are to be found in most parts of the country,
as also a kind of eel, called baum; which, however,
bears more resemblance to the gar, or
guard-fish, of which millions may be taken in
most of the fresh-water jeels, (lakes,) though
rarely exceeding a foot in length.
The rooy, or r’hooee, is a species of the carp,
as is also the meergah. They are both abundant
in the great rivers, and in all the waters connected
with them, though the former are most
numerous, and thrive greatly in ponds. The
latter are of a browner color, and rarely exceed
ten pounds in weight, whereas, the former are
often found of fifty lb., and sometimes up to a
maund.
The cutlah is a species of the perch, though
some consider it to be of the bream-kind: it is
only found in the great rivers, is generally of a
dark color, approaching to black, and commonly
weighs from ten to sixty lbs.
The whole of the above, viz. The r’hooee,
the meergah, and the cutlah, may be taken by
angling; as may also the soly, a species of the
jack, and nearly as voracious.
Trouts, about as large as smelts, are sometimes
.bn 165.png
.pn +1
to be seen in those small streams that have their
rise among mountains, but they are not so distinctly
spotted as we see them in Europe: they
are, indeed, very scarce, and generally bear a small
red, or gold, or black, spot on each scale: the
adipous fin, by which all the salmon tribe are
distinguished, is scarcely elevated above the
loins.
The fresh-water anchovy, called by the natives
çhelwar, is to be found in shoals on every flat
sand throughout the great rivers: these are generally
scared, so as to precipitate themselves on
the beach, by two men, who, wading in the water
up to their knees, gradually draw a line of fifty
or sixty feet in length, every where laden with
small, colored rags, in such manner as to enclose
the çhelwahs in a crescent, and ultimately
to drive them ashore. Occasionally, mullets,
of a small size, are found among the booty:
they are remarkably sweet and firm. Nothing
can be more common than to see shoals
of them struggling against the current, especially
in the cold months, with their eyes out
of the water. Their motions are very nimble,
but it is not uncommon to see several killed
by a round of small shot, from a common
fowling-piece: they are not to be taken by
angling. As to the tingrah, a kind of freshwater
gurnet, it is extremely voracious, and
grows to a good size; often weighing eight or
.bn 166.png
.pn +1
nine lbs.; though the average may be from two
to four. They are very strong, and afford ample
amusement when hooked. The skait grows to
full twelve or fourteen lbs., and is common in all
the great rivers; but, it must be handled with
caution, on account of its having a dreadful
spine about the centre of its tail. These two
last-mentioned fishes are rarely seen at table;
nor is the buallee, which is rather flat, and has
a continued abdominal fin, the same as eels.
This fish is extremely coarse, but desperately
rapacious; seizing almost any bait with avidity,
but affording little sport when hooked.
The puftah is of the same description, but, in
lieu of weighing, as the buallee often does, from
ten to fifteen lbs., seldom amounts to so many
ounces. Its flesh is remarkably rich and sweet,
but, when hooked, it is as little disposed as the
former to resist. The most esteemed fish is,
that called by the natives tupsey, but by us
‘mango-fish,’ on account of its appearing about
the time that mangoes first come into season: it
comes up with the tide. In appearance, it is
not unlike the smelt, though rather deeper, and
with reddish fins. The flesh of this fish is fine,
but its roe is deservedly esteemed to be delicious.
An immense quantity are cured, by being
slightly salted, and sun-dried; after which,
they are smoked for a short time over a fire made
of chaff, &c.
.bn 167.png
.pn +1
Turtle, of about a cwt., are to be found in
almost every river and creek, as also in some of
the large jeels; though they are very rarely seen
in standing waters, and then, perhaps, only in a
state of migration. The flesh of these is peculiarly
unwholesome; and, so far from being, like
the sea-turtles, composed of parts resembling
fish, flesh, and fowl, may be aptly compared
with bacon of the coarsest description, with some
tendency to rancidity. The batchwah, or ‘freshwater
herring,’ (though it has no scales,) is one
of the best fishes the Indian rivers produce; but
a general prejudice is entertained, with much
justice too, against its selection of food. The
most appropriate baits for most fishes are the
goorgoory, (or gryllus monstrosus,) and the cockroach
(or blatta). It would be endless to recount
all the kinds of fishes to be found in the streams
and lakes of India; but it may justly be stated,
that, in some parts, their numbers are so great as
absolutely to corrupt the waters. With respect
to the minor species of fish, occasionally served
at table, they are very numerous, and, in most
places, abundant: every creek and jeel is replete
with them, and every village in their vicinity
contains persons provided with some kind of
apparatus suited to catching an ample supply.
On the larger pieces of water, there are usually
either canoes or dingies, which, together with
their owners, are subservient to the jemmadars,
.bn 168.png
.pn +1
or head-boroughs, and may also be set in motion
for a very trivial present, made ostensibly to the
laborer, but commonly transferred privately to
that proud, imperious, and avaricious officer.
Poultry next come under consideration: of
this, great variety is to be found. Fowls, capons,
ducks, geese, turkies, and pigeons, are for sale in
every city, or great station, at very moderate
prices. In general, taking an average of all
places, fine chickens, called chujahs, may be had
at ten for a rupee (i.e. 3d. each); middle-sized,
or meem-kabobbies, (small roasters,) at seven or
eight for a rupee (about 4d. each); and good-sized
roasters, or kabobbies, at five for a rupee
(about 6d. each).
Capons are only to be had in particular parts
of the country; generally they are white, and
so cheap as to give ten or twelve for a rupee;
though I have purchased no less than twenty-nine
for that sum, (i.e. 1d. each,) in the Tomar
district, where they are produced in immense
numbers by the Pahariahs, or Hill people, of
that mountainous district. These people are
more immediately distinguished by the designation
of Dangahs: they are of a small stature,
very, very poor, rather squalid, but capable of
undergoing great fatigue: they are wonderfully
adroit in the exercise of the bow; and, after
performing the little labor needful for the cultivation
of the vallies, generally repair, at certain
.bn 169.png
.pn +1
seasons, to the military and civil stations in the
neighbouring districts of Ramghur, &c., where
they serve as bearers; especially on the new-road,
which is much frequented by gentlemen
travelling dawk, (post,) in palanquins, to or from
the upper stations.
Ducks are of various prices, but may be considered
at an average of four or five for a rupee
(about 7½d. or 6d. each); and geese at a rupee
each. These thrive prodigiously throughout
India; but it is far otherwise with turkies, which
are extremely tender, and cannot endure the
great heats of summer, unless allowed to graze
upon a plot well watered, and generally sheltered
from the sun. It is not uncommon to see them
crowding to some little verdant spot under the
shade of the lee-side, where a current of air,
refrigerated by the tatties, passes out from the
bungalow, &c. Without some such restorative,
they would, to a certainty, pine away, and speedily
disappoint the hopes of their owner. Among
the grass on the plots generally preserved near the
dwelling, it is common to see immense numbers
of ants, of all descriptions, which resort thither
both for coolness, and for the collection of the
seeds that are perpetually falling. It is very
strange, but true, that these little depredators
are not easily deterred, by the water being laid
on occasionally, from forming their nest in such
plots of grass, though they generally prefer some
.bn 170.png
.pn +1
dry, hard walk, or level area, along which they
form little paths, by laying the gravel, &c., aside;
so that their progress is not obstructed when
robbing some store. Many of these paths may
be traced for fifty or sixty yards; occasionally,
they are double; one being appropriated for the
egressors, the other for those returning laden
with the booty. When the turkies light upon
such a line of march, they fall to with a famous
appetite; seeming to rival our pheasants in that
particular, and exhibiting the satisfaction they
feel on receiving a supply of their favorite food.
In thus devouring the ants, they do great service;
for, I know not of any more unpleasant companions
than the little tormentors in question,
whose bite is extremely keen, producing considerable
irritation. Some of these ants grow to
full three-quarters of an inch in length, and are
capable of causing great pain. Many prevent
their being destroyed, under the opinion that
they feed upon white-ants: this I never could
establish, though I believe they are ready enough
to march off with the body of a dead white-ant,
the same as they would with any other morsel
of animal substance.
The difficulty of rearing turkies, renders them
extremely scarce; hence, it is not uncommon
to pay a gold mohur (£2.) for a well-grown, fat,
turkey-cock: few, either cocks or hens, are to be
had in any part of the country, for less than half
.bn 171.png
.pn +1
that sum; and then chiefly from Portugueze
families, that make a livelihood by rearing them.
About Bandel, a Portugueze town, some thirty
miles above Calcutta, great numbers are reared;
as are also ducks, and geese, in abundance. At
all the great stations, both civil and military;
some persons of that description generally reside,
through whose industry families are supplied.
Fowls are reared by the same persons; though
less an object to them, as almost every Mahomedan
family maintains a few, mostly for its
own use, but sometimes for sale. As to the
Hindus, nothing could be more criminal than
such a speculation: the very touch of a fowl
being considered the acmé of pollution. From
this we may judge how necessary it is to be
guarded in making changes in the dress of our
native soldiers; whose zeal and fidelity are unquestionable,
but who instantly revolt at any
invasion, however slight, of their religious
tenets, or of their vulgar prejudices. Those
who affect to consider such to be easily overruled,
or, who vainly talk of coercing so many
millions to adopt our faith, would do well to
take a trip to Bengal, and to insist on any Hindu
menials, or others, under their authority, wearing
a feather in their turban.
As to the numerous species of wild game,
such as antelopes, hog-deer, hogs, geese, ducks,
teal, snipes, ortolans, quails, partridges, florikens,
.bn 172.png
.pn +1
(or bustards,) pigeons of sorts, wild
and tame, hares, &c., they are generally to be
had in abundance; those of my readers who
wish for a more detailed account, will find it in
my ‘Wild Sports of the East,’ published
in folio, with colored plates, as also in quarto
royal, and imperial octavo, by Mr. Edward
Orme, of Bond-street, and by Messrs. Black and
Co. Leadenhall-street. In that superb work,
the details of every branch of hunting, shooting,
&c., will be found.
There are no wild rabbits in India, but great
numbers of tame ones are to be had at Calcutta,
and at some of the subordinate stations. The
prices vary according to demand, age, and condition;
but we may take the average at four for a
rupee when half grown, and at double that rate
when fit for the table. It is, however, extremely
difficult to preserve them in safety from their
numerous enemies the dogs, jackals, foxes, cats,
rats, bats, snakes, hawks, crows, &c.
Having, I believe, generally discussed what
relates to the supply of the table, I shall proceed
to the description of other matters relating
to the convenience and service of gentlemen
resident in the East.
The dinner table is invariably laid with two
cloths; one of the usual size, the other about
large enough to cover the surface only: this last
is removed when the meat is taken off; so that
.bn 173.png
.pn +1
the dessert is laid upon the lower one, which
has, in the mean while, been preserved by it
from stains, grease, crumbs, &c. A napkin is
laid with every cover, together with a tumbler or
rummer, a long glass for Claret, and an ordinary-sized
one for Madeira. Each glass is provided
with a cover, which may be lifted off by means
of a stud in its centre. In opulent families,
these covers are usually made of silver, otherwise
of turned wood. It is remarkable, that
some of the common indigenous woods have
the peculiar property, when used for this
purpose, of imparting a most offensive smell,
attended with a similar flavor, to water, &c., if
left for a few minutes.
The knives and forks are all of European
manufacture, though, within these few years,
some excellent imitations have appeared. I
doubt if Blacky can, as yet, bring his work so
low as our artizans, though he certainly has the
advantage of them in cheapness of living, and in
being generally exempt from the operation of a
variety of taxes. This deficiency on the part of
the natives, proceeds from their being obliged
to perform all those operations by hand, which
we both accelerate and perfect by means of
machinery. The greater part of the plate, used
throughout the country, is made by native
smiths, who, in some instances, may be seen to
tread very close on the heels of our jewellers,
.bn 174.png
.pn +1
not only in the graceful form of the articles
manufactured, but in the patterns, whether
carved or embossed. Such specimens of perfection
are, however, rare, and are produced
chiefly under the superintendence of European
masters; though I have seen some pieces, made
by sonaars, (goldsmiths,) totally independent of
such aid, or instruction, which displayed much
skill and some taste. Speaking, however, of
the common workmanship of this class, it must
be put out of all comparison with British plate,
on account of its being indifferently shaped, and
rudely ornamented. Hence, such plate as is
sent from this country, as well as what is made
up by Europeans settled in India, very generally
sells for full 25, or even for 50 per cent. more than
what is manufactured by the native artizans.
The whole of the glass-ware used in India, is
furnished from England, and commonly sells at
full two, if not three, hundred per cent. on the
prime cost: this is not unreasonable, when
we consider how brittle the commodity is,
and that the extent of sale is not so considerable
as to render it, individually, an object
of adventure.
Table cloths and napkins are manufactured in
several parts of the country, especially at Patna,
Tondah, and most of those cities where piece-goods
are made. The beauty of some fabrics of
this description is very striking; nor is their
.bn 175.png
.pn +1
durability less conspicuous. I have by me, at
this moment, some that have been in constant
use for full twelve years, and my stock, at
no time, exceeded a dozen and a half of
table cloths. The prices of such may be supposed
to vary according to quality; but a very
superior bird’s eye may be generally had for
about two rupees per square yard; observing,
that the cost will necessarily be somewhat
encreased in proportion to the greater extent of
the piece. Others, of a coarser texture, and of
a plain diaper, are to be had extremely cheap;
perhaps as low as eight annas (15d.) per square
yard. Such are, however, extremely flimsy,
and never appear creditable. Towels are also
manufactured at various prices; some reaching
so high as two rupees (5s.) each, while others
may be obtained by the dozen for the same
money. The best for common use may be
rated at about five or six rupees per dozen. A
kind, generally of mixed colored borders, wove
in, is made at Chittagong: these are rough,
like what we call huckaback, and are peculiarly
well calculated for drying and cleaning
the skin after washing; but they are not so
durable as the plain diapers.
Great quantities of furniture are sent from
Europe, being first taken to pieces, and packed
within a very small space. Of this description,
mahogany tables and chairs form by far the
.bn 176.png
.pn +1
greater portion; few other articles being shipped,
though now and then we see a few bureaus,
secretaires, ecritoires, &c., among a cargo from
Europe. All such commodities would bear
even a higher price than is now charged for
them, were it not that, among the natives,
as well as among the European carpenters, and
joiners, settled in Calcutta, the British mechanics
experience considerable, and very successful,
rivalship.
The excellent woods, of different kinds, produced
in almost every part of India, and the
facility with which they may be brought to market,
present the most favorable aids to the Indian
artizans; but, owing to the want of capital
among the natives, the work done by them is
rarely found to answer: it warps dreadfully, and
sometimes rives from one, to the other, end. This
is entirely owing to the deficiency of seasoning;
for we find, that whenever a gentleman is at the
pains, and has the opportunity, to saw up his
own wood, and to season it properly, it will commonly
be found to answer his expectations fully;
both in respect to durability, and to the polish it
may take. Although there is, in some instances,
an obvious cheapness in employing a native carpenter,
it may safely be asserted, that, on the
long run, what with delay, impositions, imperfections,
&c., it is frequently found to be a very
round-about way of saving a trifle. I strongly
.bn 177.png
.pn +1
recommend to all persons arriving in India, to
visit the several depôts of furniture to be seen at
every auction-warehouse, and generally at the
godowns (warehouses) of the European shopkeepers.
There is, besides, a whole street,
called the ‘china-bazar,’ as well as various
scattered boutiques, appropriated entirely to the
display of European articles, and of china-ware,
of every description; all which are sold for ready
money only, by a tribe of Hindu speculators,
who, from attending at auctions, are enabled to
make cheap purchases, and become perfectly
acquainted with the qualities of every article;
or, at least, with such points as give a preference
in the eye of an European. In this bazar, (or
market,) almost every thing an European can
require, for common purposes, may be obtained:
he may, indeed, purchase an ample library, either
of new, or of second-hand books; and, generally
speaking, may equip himself in such a manner
as may enable him to keep house at full thirty
per cent. cheaper than among the European
shop-keepers.
Though we may find a few trades, such as
coach-making, jewellery, cutlery, armoury, &c.,
perfectly distinct, and unconnected with any
other speculation, we are not to suppose that
commodities, in general, are separately classed,
and exhibited in shops solely allotted to them.
On the contrary, what we call an ‘Europe-Shop,’
.bn 178.png
.pn +1
affords a rich display of that heterogeneous
kind of cargo imported in every merchant-ship
proceeding to that quarter. Consequently,
each shop offers an astonishing variety of wares.
Liquors of all kinds, guns, pistols, glass ware,
tin and copper ware, crockery, stationary, shoes
and boots, hosiery, woollens, linens, ironmongery,
hats, cheese, grocery, and an infinity of
articles of the most opposite natures, may be
found in the spacious rooms, and godowns, allotted
to the exhibition of the miscellaneous
profusion!
Though it is not common to see European
goods, especially those which are not immediately
perishable, selling for less than thirty or
forty per cent. advance upon the salt-water invoices,
it sometimes happens, that an immense
importation of some few particular articles may
lower them to full fifty per cent. under prime cost.
This is easily accounted for: for instance, should
hats, shoes, and boots, bear a great price at the
time a fleet is about to be despatched for Europe,
all the commanders and officers note it down,
for the purpose of making those articles bear a
large proportion in their next outward-bound
cargoes. Thus, each unwittingly becomes the
dupe of his own avarice; and, on the return of
those ships to India, experiences the lamentable
effects of having allowed himself to be guided
by former prices. I recollect hearing an officer
.bn 179.png
.pn +1
on board one of the Company’s ships declare,
that he made it a rule always to lay in a good
stock of those articles which were cheap at the
time he quitted India: for, that he was certain
the lowness of the prices would influence the
others of his class to avoid purchasing them
for the India markets, which, by the time of
his return, he invariably found to have regained
their former level. By holding back a little
while, until the Europe shop-keepers found
that he was the sole, or, at least, the principal,
importer of those goods, he had never failed to
make a very profitable bargain.
However much we, in Europe, may admire
genuine china-ware, our countrymen in the East
seem, for the most part, indifferent to its beauties;
they preferring our ornamented Staffordshire
ware; which, owing to its bulk, and
brittleness, necessarily sells at a very high price
in every quarter of India. What is called ‘a
long set,’ by which we mean a service equal to
a table for at least thirty persons, often sells for
500 sicca rupees, equal to £65.; and ‘short
sets’ in proportion. The disadvantage attendant
upon the use of this ware, in so remote a
situation, is, that, when, owing to the numerous
accidents to which all such articles are
subject, even under especial vigilance, but particularly
under the auspices of native menials,
the set may be much reduced, it is utterly impracticable
.bn 180.png
.pn +1
to fill up the vacancies thus occasioned.
With china ware, it is very different;
for it is not so easy to distinguish between two
complex patterns, if tolerably similar; and, as
there is always a very large stock on hand, among
the retailers in the china-bazar, a very great
chance, if not a certainty, exists, of being furnished
with any number of plates, dishes, &c.,
that may be required to restore the set to its
complement, or even to augment it, if necessary.
It may be a proper precaution, however, not to
buy a set of china ware of any very particular
pattern; but to select one from those numerous
rich patterns every where common, and annually
imported. This seems to prove, that, unless
under particular orders, the Chinese deviate
but little from their established fashions; as
may be further seen in their constant manufacture
of that kind of crockery we generally term
‘dragon-china,’ which appears to have been
in use among them for centuries.
A very expensive article of general consumption
is wax-candle. The price of wax, some
years back, was about sixteen rupees per maund,
(equal to 6d. per lb.,) but, of late years, it has
more than trebled, in consequence of the encreased
demand. Here we see that want of
system which too often tends to annihilate
what might, under due regulation, be made a
most advantageous concern. It is necessary to
.bn 181.png
.pn +1
be understood, that honey is of little value in
India, the natives considering it unwholesome,
and the Hindus being particularly averse to destroying
so many lives, for the purpose of robbing
their combs. These circumstances tend to
diminish the collection of wax, which, in some
districts, hangs for years neglected upon the
briars in the jungles; and, added to the jealousy
of the zemindars, (or land-holders,) who rarely
omit to exact a very smart duty upon whatever
is taken from their soil, deters those who possess
a spirit of enterprize from becoming dealers in
wax. I have not a doubt but that half a million
of maunds might be annually collected, if proper
encouragement were held out, and a sale insured
to the adventurers, at any particular towns in
the several districts where bees are abundant.
Within the last twenty years, a few Europeans
have established manufactories of wax-candles,
which often sell for eighty rupees per maund
(82lb). This, though an excessive price, compared
with that formerly prevalent, comes to
rather less than 2s. 6d. per lb.; and, as the wax
is always pure, it should seem, that, as an article
of commerce, much profit might be derived
from importation. At present, wax-candles are
prohibited, although the price of raw bees’-wax
is here up to near 4s., and tallow at a very
exorbitant height. I am greatly mistaken, if the
benefits this branch of business is capable of
.bn 182.png
.pn +1
yielding, both to the nation, and to individuals,
are properly understood.
To place this in a proper point of view will
require but little detail; for, if we say that wax
candles, of the first quality, can be offered for
sale at Calcutta for £13. per cwt., and that raw
wax sells with us at 3s. 6d. per lb., or £19. 12s.
per cwt., it is obvious that the manufactured
article might be imported to us at full 50 per
cent. cheaper than the raw material can be obtained
on our own soil. Let us compute this on
the large scale; comparing the manufactured
articles, and making allowances for the fair value
of the raw materials in either country.
.ta l:50 rb:6
| £
A ton of wax candles of Indian manufacture,\
even at the high price of 80 rupees (i.e.\
£10.) per maund of 82lb. would be | 260
Freight, shipping, charges, and insurance, per ton | 25
Wharfage, &c., on landing, per ton | 5
| ——
Total | 290
A ton of wax candles of European manufacture,\
at £28. per cwt., equal to 5s. per lb. | 560
| ——
Difference in favor of the Indian candles, per ton | £270
| ——
Raw wax may be had at Calcutta for about\
forty rupees per maund, or rather under £7.\
per cwt. which brings the ton to | 140
Freight, &c., as above | 30
| ——
| 170
.bn 183.png
.pn +1
//Brought forward | 170
Whereas, the raw wax produced, in England,\
generally sells for about 3s. 6d. per lb. or\
£19. 12s. per cwt., or, per ton | 392
| ——
Giving a balance in favor of Indian wax, of,\
per ton | £222
.ta-
I have not made any allowance for duties;
but it will be seen from the above very simple
calculation, that a very heavy impost might be
laid on either the raw material, or the manufactured
article, without reducing the profit so low
as to leave no encouragement to the speculator.
Let us, however, set it down at £60. per ton,
which is an enormous sum, and say, that, in
consequence of the great importation, wax
should fall one-third in price. This fall would
reduce the ton of candles to £380., from which
deduct the £60. duty, and there would be left
£320.; so that, after paying the £290. of cost and
incidental charges, no less than £30. would remain
as the net profit on each ton. If we, in like
manner, take one third, say £132. from the £392.
to result from the sale of the raw material, and
£40. more for duties, we reduce the net profits
from £222. to £50. In either way the speculation
is highly interesting, and requires only to be
thoroughly examined to insure attention. I am
not, at this moment, prepared to say what may
be the amount of duties collected on wax, or of
the excise on the manufacture of candles, but
.bn 184.png
.pn +1
apprehend that it must fall very short of what
might be realized if wax candles were more
generally used in the houses of opulent persons.
Some forty years ago, when wax candles sold
for three shillings per pound, they were in great
request. If, however, we calculate for the importation
of 3,000 tons of wax annually, in its
raw state, paying a duty of £40. per ton, we
should find a result of no less than £120,000.
The foregoing estimate stands entirely on the
present high prices of wax in India, but which
might, by proper regulations, be reduced to one-third.
Thus, if it were stipulated that the rents
of certain districts should be payable, to a particular
extent, in crude wax, at a fixed valuation,
the quantity brought to market might, I am fully
confident, be equal to what I have already stated,
viz. 500,000 maunds, or 18,750 tons, which,
taken at £200. only per ton, when landed, would
give a national benefit equal to £3,750,000! and
a revenue of £650,000. arising from the duty, at
£40. per ton on the raw material!
When it is recollected how dependent we have
been on other nations for a supply of tallow;
and that, on an average of peace and war, we
pay nearly £80. per ton for foreign tallow; also,
that one wax candle of equal weight will burn
out two of tallow; it should seem evident, that
the importation of wax from our settlements
abroad, as well as from various Indian islands,
.bn 185.png
.pn +1
in which it is abundantly produced, should become
an object of national consideration. The
very unpleasant scent attendant upon the use of
tallow, and its great aptitude to gutter in so hot
a climate, occasion its use to be confined to
those Europeans whose circumstances may not
permit them to use wax. This occasions all
who return from India, after long residence
there, to be extremely incommoded by the
smell of mould candles; the smoke of which is,
to them, peculiarly offensive, and strongly calls
to mind the cheraugs, or oil-lamps, in common
employ among the natives, and in the zenanahs
of Europeans.
The whole of the doors and windows being
thrown open, during the evenings especially, it
would be impossible to prevent the current of
air, passing through every part of the interior,
from extinguishing the several lights, were it not
that large glass covers, called shades, were applied
by way of preventives. Some of these
shades are made to stand on pillars, or pedestals,
generally of wood, with brass ferules, and having
broad plinths, either square or circular, to prevent
their being easily overset.
The other kind of table-shade is by no means
so convenient as that just described, it being an
irregular tube, standing on its base, or broader
extremity; and, though spreading in the centre,
drawing narrower toward the upper part. This
.bn 186.png
.pn +1
kind requires to be much longer, so as to shelter
the flame of a candle standing on a candlestick,
which should not, properly, be more than six
inches in height. The inconveniences by which
this shade is attended are self-evident; as it
cannot be carried about, or lifted, in toto, as the
pedestal shade may be. Those lights which are
affixed to the walls, either on sconces, or
brackets, or that are suspended from hooks, are
generally on the same principle; with this necessary
difference, that oil is chiefly burnt in
such, by means of a small glass tumbler half
filled with water, on which the oil floats, and
supports a very slight tin tube with four tin
wings, to each of which a piece of cork is
affixed. During the rainy season, when insects
of every description are beyond credibility
numerous, it is often absolutely necessary to
remove all lights from the supper table; otherwise
moths, flies, bugs, &c., would be attracted
in such numbers as to extinguish them altogether,
but, at all events, to prove extremely
obnoxious. When the lights are retained on the
table, it is customary to place the candlesticks in
soup plates, &c., filled with water: by this
means, such insects, especially the stinking-bugs,
which fly with great force, are often precipitated
and drowned: it is not unusual to
catch whole platefuls in this manner, which
would otherwise continue to torment the company.
.bn 187.png
.pn +1
Nothing can exceed the irritation produced
by these bugs when they get into the hair,
or between the linen and the body! Nor are
they in themselves innocent; for, though they
neither bite nor sting, such is the acrimony they
possess, that, if bruised in such manner as to
leave any moisture on the skin, great heat, and
sometimes blisters, followed by excoriations that
do not quickly heal, may take place. The same
effect is produced by the urine of lizards, which
frequent the interior of houses, and may often
be seen in great numbers crawling about the
walls, or on the ceiling, (if we may so term the
roofs already described,) in pursuit of the
smaller and more delicate insects, which they
snap up with great dexterity and greediness.
It is really amusing to observe with what sagacity
and care they approach their prey, and with
what rapidity they dart forth their long tongues
armed with gluten. With respect to frogs, toads,
and, occasionally, snakes, patrolling about the
skirts of the apartments, even of the best houses
in the country, they must be put up with as
matters of course; as must also the alighting of
cock-roaches on the face while at table, or at
cards, &c.: nor, indeed, must the resident in
India be very squeamish in regard to bats, which
freely indulge in aëriel circuits over the heads of
the company, on which, too, they now and then
find it convenient to halt awhile, without undergoing
.bn 188.png
.pn +1
the previous ceremony of obtaining
permission. These all appear terrible drawbacks,
but are scarcely noticed after awhile: so
strong is the power of habit. Certainly a very
considerable portion of the enjoyments, which
might otherwise be indulged in, are, in a manner,
proscribed by these nuisances; but, whether
it be owing to that ennui generally prevalent,
or to that kind of reconciliation which
takes place between the pest and its sufferer,
may be difficult to determine; we, however, see
all the old residents treat insects, frogs, toads,
&c., with great indifference; though, to be sure,
when a snake, of whatever class, makes his
entrée, an astonishing degree of activity, far beyond
what the former lethargic symptoms could
indicate, suddenly prevails.
I have several times seen large snakes coiled,
or rather twined, among the Venetians of bungalow
windows, and have observed that the
grass-snake, which is of a beautiful green, with
a reddish head, is partial to secreting itself under
the leaves of tables, and, in situations of that
description, where it may be easily dislodged, or
touched, by accident. Such a propensity is
peculiarly obnoxious in a serpent whose bite is
generally fatal. This snake may occasionally be
seen twisted round the smaller boughs of trees,
whence, if disturbed, it drops with great readiness,
and proceeds along the tops of the grass
.bn 189.png
.pn +1
with admirable celerity, and, owing to the
similarity of its color, scarcely allowing the
dazzled eye to follow its course.
The Cunjoors carry a great variety of serpents
about the country, which they are in the habit
of exhibiting to families for a mere trifle. Some,
such as the adjghur or boa-constrictor, which
has been known to reach the immense length of
thirty feet, destroy by the extent of their bite,
or by compression; while the lesser species
seem to be provided with poison to make up
for their deficiency of bulk. The skeleton of an
adjghur was found near Chittagong, about forty
years ago, having in its fauces the skeleton of a
full-grown deer; the horns of which, it was supposed,
had occasioned the suffocation of its unwieldy
devourer. I have seen one of this kind
that required eight men to lift him into his
basket! An operation to which, either from
habit, or fatigue, it submitted with great resignation.
The covra capella, is the same as the
hooded-snake of America, thus designated from
a peculiar spreading of the throat when in a
state of irritation, so as to give it much resemblance
to a flounder, but with a curious
figure extremely similar to a pair of spectacles,
which, being under the throat, is fully exhibited
as the snake rises, as he is wont to do, nearly
half his length, before he darts upon the object
of resentment. These snakes are peculiarly
.bn 190.png
.pn +1
venomous, and, though averaging from three to
five feet, are seen to attain a larger size. I have
shot four in one day, namely, two males, of a
black, or deep bottle green; and two females,
ordinarily of a clay color; which measured from
six to nine feet. A few years ago, I saw one
exhibited by the Cunjoors, or Saumpareahs, (i.e.
snake-men,) which actually measured about
thirteen feet! The daumeen grows to a large
size, perhaps eight to twelve feet, but has no
venomous teeth, or fangs. He lashes with his
tail, coiling into a bow, and awaiting the approach
of dogs, men, &c., before he lashes;
which he does with such severity as often to cut
the integuments very deeply. The natives entertain
an opinion that the tail of this snake is
venomous; and it might be supposed, from the
almost certainly fatal effects produced by its
operation, that it were so; but I have always
attributed the mischief occasioned thereby, to
that laceration produced by a very rough scaly
body, such as the tail is, proceeding with great
force over parts well known to be peculiarly
irritable; occasioning a strong tendency to that
most horrible affection the tetanus, or locked-jaw,
from which not one in a thousand recovers.
The covra manilla rarely grows to more than
fifteen or eighteen inches, and is of a mottled
appearance, very indicative of its deleterious
property: if I err not, its bite is invariably fatal.
.bn 191.png
.pn +1
The double-headed snake receives that name
from its body being nearly cylindrical, the tail
terminating in a short cone, resembling a second
head. This snake is chiefly seen in hilly countries,
but is occasionally washed down by the
annual floods, to the plains, where it is found in
drains and hollows, from which it does not
appear to be over-well qualified to escape. Its
average length may be from two to three feet,
and its thickness, or circumference, from four to
six inches.
It may be acceptable to my readers, while
upon this subject, to be informed of the antidote;
viz. the volatile alkali, or eau de luce.
A few drops of this diluted sufficiently in a wine
glass full of water, if taken in time, and repeated
every two or three hours, or even more
frequently, has been known to counteract the
venom after its effects had been so fully ascertained
as to leave but little chance of recovery.
I never went out shooting without a small bottle
of this, closed by a ground stopper, in my tin
box of apparatus. Fortunately, although I
have been repeatedly in imminent danger, and
had snakes dancing the hayes all around me, no
occasion ever presented itself for having recourse
to my precautionary bottle!
The following extracts, from a very interesting
communication made by W. Boag, Esq.
to the Asiatic Society, will set this matter in a
.bn 192.png
.pn +1
proper form, and qualify any person to judge of
the danger, from the several symptoms prevalent,
in ordinary cases, when the venom takes effect.
It may be proper to premise, that many who
have been bitten by snakes of the worst description
have not been affected; merely owing to
the thickness of their cloathing, by which the
noxious fluid has been absorbed.
Mr. Boag informs us, that ‘The symptoms
which arise from the bite of a serpent, are, commonly,
pain, swelling, and redness in the part
bitten; great faintness, with sickness at stomach,
and sometimes vomiting, succeed; the breath
becomes short and laborious; the pulse low,
quick, and interrupted: the wound, which was
at first red, becomes livid, black, and gangrenous;
the skin of the wounded limb, and sometimes
of the whole body, assumes a yellowish
hue; cold sweats and convulsions come on, and
the patient sinks, sometimes in a few hours, but
commonly at the end of two, three, or four
days.
‘This is the usual progress when the disease
terminates fatally; but, happily, the patient will
most commonly recover; a reflection which
should moderate the fears of those who happen
to be bitten by snakes, and which, at any rate,
should, as much as possible, be resisted; as the
depressing passion of fear will, in all cases, assist
the operation of the poison.
.bn 193.png
.pn +1
‘The volatile alkali is the remedy mostly
employed by physicians, both in India and in
Europe; but the belief which formerly prevailed,
that it possessed some specific power,
which corrected the poison, seems to be now
very generally relinquished; and it is now acknowledged
to have no other action than that
ascribed to it by Mr. Williams, (of Benares,) of
stimulating the vascular system to a more vigorous
exertion.
‘The calces, or, as they are more properly
called, the oxyds of some metals, as arsenic,
mercury, and silver, have been made use of; the
efficacy of which, as remedies in this disease,
merit a more attentive consideration.
‘We are indebted to Fontaua for any knowledge
we possess regarding the use of the lunar-caustic;
which is a preparation of silver in the
nitrous acid; and, considering the length of
time that has elapsed since his publication, and
the advantages resulting from its use, it is wonderful
it has not excited more general attention.
‘He first mixed the venom with the lunar-caustic,
applied this mixture to a wound, and
found that the venom was rendered entirely
innocent, while the corroding power of the
caustic was diminished. He next wounded a
variety of animals, with venomous teeth, scarified
the wounds, and washed them with a solution
of lunar-caustic in water: by this means,
.bn 194.png
.pn +1
the lives of the greatest number of the animals
were saved, though they were such as he knew
to be most easily killed by the poison, and the
death of others was retarded. He also tried a
weak solution, of the same remedy, internally,
with remarkable success, and, upon the whole,
he congratulates himself in seeing his labors at
length rewarded, by the discovery of a true
specific remedy for the bites of serpents.
‘A ligature should, as soon as possible, be
made above the part bitten, so as to impede, but
not entirely to stop, the circulation of the blood;
for the bite of a serpent is, for the most part,
superficial, and the poison is carried into circulation
by the smaller vessels on the surface; the
wound should then be scarified, and washed in
a solution (rather weak) of the lunar-caustic in
water.’
Mr. Boag recommends a warm bath for the
limb bitten, and thinks the addition of a small
quantity of nitrous acid would produce excellent
effects. He speaks of it only as a suggestion,
and, where time may admit, and the means
be at hand, there certainly ought to be a fair trial
made of so promising a theory: the misfortune is,
that, owing to the great heat of the climate, and
the dread ever entertained of the result, all the
symptoms proceed with rapidity. That gentleman
speaks of several hours elapsing between
the accident, and the fatal termination; but my
.bn 195.png
.pn +1
own experience satisfies me, that not one in ten
of those bitten during the hot months, and especially
when at work, or heated with travelling,
&c., survive more than one hour: I have, indeed,
seen various cases, in which half that time was
the utmost; and could adduce some instances of
persons dying within the quarter of an hour.
Though snakes certainly, for the most part,
endeavor to avoid the human race, they have
been known to come very fiercely to the attack.
No doubt, when this has happened, some
previous irritation has occurred, or they have
been pursued by the ichneumon; (i.e. the
benjy, bissy, or neoule,) which is to be seen wild
in every part of India, and may, at times, be
found contending with snakes of great bulk.
This active little animal, the natural enemy of
all serpents, as well as of the smaller kinds of
vermin, worries his opponent by incessant feints,
as though he were about to seize its throat, and,
in time, so fatigues, as to render it unable to
resist with its primary celerity and caution.
When the snake is in that state, the ichneumon
rushes forward, and, by seizing its throat, or the
back of its head, soon lays the envenomed
reptile lifeless at its command. It sometimes
happens that the ichneumon receives a bite,
when he immediately relinquishes his object,
and seeks among the neighbouring verdure for
some root, of which he eats, and, after rolling
.bn 196.png
.pn +1
himself in the soil, returns to the charge with
unabated keenness. Should the snake have
retired, the little quadruped speedily scents him
out, and rarely fails to revenge himself for his
past danger. What it is the animal has recourse
to, never has been ascertained; of course,
remains among our other important desiderata.
The ichneumon is not only domesticated with
facility, if obtained at an early age, but becomes
extremely affectionate. Neither rats nor snakes
will enter a house in which a tame ichneumon is
retained, and allowed, as is usual, to range about
at pleasure. The Saumpareahs, or snake-men,
keep one, or more, for the purpose of exhibiting
their feats in the attack of snakes.
It is wonderful how accurately a Saumpareah
will ascertain, merely by smelling at a hole in a
wall, &c., whether a snake be within. If such
should be the case, the reptile’s fate may be considered
as decided; for, what with the music of
a rude species of oboe, and the allurement of
various drugs, in which dunneah, a species of
coriander, among which snakes delight to bask,
are prevalent, he soon comes forth, and is either
taken in a bag, or by an assistant snatching hold
of his tail with one hand, and sliding the other
with great rapidity up to its throat; which, being
constricted by the grasp, occasions the fangs to
be exposed: these being extracted, the captive
is added to the stock of innocents.
.bn 197.png
.pn +1
Though diminutive, in regard to corporeal
extent, the musquito may be considered a most
formidable enemy to the repose of almost every
thing possessing animation, but especially to
Europeans; whose manner of living generally
gives a considerable tendency to general, as well
as to local, inflammation. In this I speak relatively;
for, when we compare the habits of
our countrymen with those of the natives, we
shall find that a very great difference prevails,
and that, what we might in Europe call moderation,
may, in Asia, very properly be construed
into excess. This difference is so great, that,
in ordinary cases, the physicians’ first care is to
lower the temperament of his British patient,
thereby to repress the usual tendency towards
inflammation; especially in persons of a plethoric
habit, or lately arrived from Europe; while, on
the contrary, it generally requires some effort to
keep the frugal native from sinking under that
typhus to which he is most subject.
Musquitoes generally remain inactive during
the day, retiring to the borders of some muddy
pool, or stinking drain, where they deposit their
ova, which, in a few days, produce a noxious
million, that may be seen in their several stages,
at most times of the year, and especially during
the hot season, when such puddles are often
both replete with, and covered by, young musquitoes.
.bn 198.png
.pn +1
These unpleasant companions not only make
a very disagreeable humming, but thrust their
trunks, the same as the common knat does his
proboscis, between the threads of a stocking,
&c.; and, while sucking the blood of their victim,
cause a very smarting sensation, which
does not immediately cease; if scratched, a
musquito-bite will usually rise into a small
white, hard lump; which, on further provocation,
proceeds to suppurate; frequently degenerating
into very obstinate sores. Instances
have occurred of very serious consequences
being entailed, by an unguarded indulgence
granted to the nails at the moment of irritation.
Every bed, (commonly called a cot,) is furnished
with a set of inner curtains, made of
gauze, manufactured for that purpose in several
parts of Bengal, and known by the name of
koppradool. These curtains, being very thin,
and generally of a green color, serve not only to
debar access to the musquitoes, but, without
much obstruction to the air, offer a pleasant
medium between the eye, and any glare which
may either enter directly from the exterior, or
be reflected by the walls; which, in most houses,
are white, as already explained in describing the
European architecture of the East.
It is always expedient to have these curtains
put up before it is dark; otherwise musquitoes,
being then on the wing, will, if possible, find
.bn 199.png
.pn +1
their way to the interior; whence it is not very
easy to fan them out. Besides, by this easy
precaution, it is not very practicable for snakes,
or rats, to get under the pillows, or into the
bed; situations in which they have occasionally
been found. The rats are often induced to burrow
into the pillows, which are usually stuffed
with the silky-cotton called seemul, wherein the
seeds are left, and, by their oily nature, attract
this description of vermin in particular. The
females sometimes resort to it when about to
bring forth their young: hence, it is not uncommon
to find the old lady in possession of a pillow,
or bolster, or, eventually, of the mattress; especially
if no person has slept on them for a few
nights. On board budjrows, rats are often very
troublesome, destroying boots, shoes, &c., without
mercy: I have frequently felt them, during
the night, attacking the powder and pomatum
at the back of my head. Of this the cock-roach
also is very fond, but the sensation it produces
is nothing more than a tickling, as though the
fingers of another person were introduced among
the hair; whereas, a rat makes a more desperate
attack, often giving a strong pull, or, occasionally,
knawing at the accumulated grease, which
adheres to the head itself. Though I made it
a rule always to have my bed-cloaths stripped
off, and my pillows turned over, before I got
into bed, nothing of the serpent kind was ever
.bn 200.png
.pn +1
discovered, though many rats and mice were at
times dislodged. Other persons have not been
so fortunate; my own experience has made me
acquainted with various instances of snakes
being found in beds whereon gentlemen were
about to repose. A very curious circumstance
happened many years back, of a lady being
called by her servant to see a snake that lay very
contentedly between two of her infants, which
slept on a small cot. It may be readily supposed
their perilous situation produced the
most dreadful anxiety. With great fortitude,
and presence of mind, she directed the menial
to go to one side of the bed, and to seize one of
the children by a leg and an arm, while she did
the same with the other; and thus to snatch
them away. This was a bold measure, and possibly
saved the little ones from injury; but, had
the mother caused a chaffing dish to be brought
into the apartment, and set thereon some milk
to boil, the smell of it would instantly have
caused the snake to creep out, for the purpose
of partaking of his favorite food. Though all
snakes are peculiarly fond of a certain warm
temperature, inclining to summer heat, they
will, in general, take to the water very freely,
especially when pursued. Many persons pretend
to distinguish such as are venomous, by
their aversion thereto; but such is very fallacious.
I have repeatedly seen covra capellas
.bn 201.png
.pn +1
dart into puddles, and ponds, with seeming
eagerness. It is extremely dangerous to proceed
along path-ways, leading through grass covers,
or jungles, at night; as, at that time, numbers
of snakes will quit the heavy grass for the purpose
of lying in the current of air, which necessarily
proceeds along those paths whose
sides are confined, perhaps to the height of
several feet, by grass and underwood, and cause
them to resemble the vistas cut through coppices,
&c.
From what has been said above, many may be
led to suppose, that, in India, every step is attended
with danger; and, that neither the day,
nor the night, offers security. This certainly is
not always the case; but I should strongly advise
every person to act throughout with caution;
and to suppose these dangers I have
described to be imminent. This, though it may
not be comfortable, will generally insure safety.
With regard to scorpions, centipedes, &c., too
much circumspection cannot be used. In some
parts of the country they are very numerous,
capable of inflicting great pain, and of producing
very severe local inflammation. Instances have
been known of serious indisposition having been
induced by the stings of scorpions in particular.
The young ones are generally of a yellowish, or
dun, or clay color; as they advance in growth,
they gradually become darker, until they acquire
.bn 202.png
.pn +1
a bottle color. Though very rare, I have seen a
few of these which measured nearly eight inches
from the mouth to the point of the sting, which
much resembles a large dark-colored thorn from
a rose-bush. There are, however, two kinds of
scorpions, of which that species above described
is certainly the most formidable; fortunately, it
is seldom to be seen in places much frequented:
the other kind may often be seen by dozens in
the folds of a tent, &c., laid by in a dark place
among old rubbish; and, not unfrequently, in
the cracks of old mud walls. Many a poor servant,
in walking about a house at night, or in
rummaging among old stores, gets stung by the
beeçhu (scorpion). The part affected generally
swells, and smarts, or, rather aches, considerably:
but the remedy is easy; a rag moistened
with vinegar affording speedy relief. The same
application is equally proper in case of being
bitten by a centipede, called by the natives kaungoojer;
from the opinion entertained that it is
apt to creep into the ear. That such may have
taken place, cannot be denied; but it would, I
believe, prove extremely difficult to produce a
well-authenticated instance. The centipede is
by no means calculated for such an insinuation;
he being of some breadth, and growing, rather
quickly, to such a size as must preclude the
possibility of his getting into the ear: I have
seen several measuring nine and ten inches in
.bn 203.png
.pn +1
length; and as broad, though not above a third
so thick, as a man’s finger: we may consider
half those dimensions to constitute the ordinary
bulk.
Wasps and hornets are every where abundant
during the whole year: the latter commonly
nestle in the ground, or in the hollow of a tree,
or perhaps form a small cell in some corner, or
under a thatch, and there deposit their larvæ.
The former are sometimes seen in such numbers
as to occasion considerable uneasiness; they not
only make their nests within the walls of bungalows,
if, by means of cracks, or of distances between
wood-work, they should find the opportunity,
but boldly construct their combs within
the apartments; sometimes attached to a cornice,
but most generally in one of the upper
corners of a window frame, so as to have ready
means of retiring. The destruction of these
intruders is not always practicable, without considerable
danger. The best mode is to cover a
man well up in a blanket, and to place on his
head a pot of embers, on which a lump of sulphur
is laid; so that, by standing under the
comb, the fumes may stupify, or at least expel,
the wasps; after which the comb may be removed
without difficulty. The greatest danger is when
the wasps take possession of some spot very
near to the thatch; for instance, if they attach
their dwelling to one of the rafters. When it is
.bn 204.png
.pn +1
considered, that half the thatches are extremely
decayed, and take fire like tinder, it must be
obvious how delicately the operation should be
managed: in such case, a slow match, made to
contain a large portion of sulphur, and fastened
to the end of a pole, is, perhaps, the most secure
device; for, if a single spark were to fly into the
thatch, it probably would, like Doctor Slop’s
wig, be ‘nearly consumed before it were well
kindled!’
Bees are by no means so bold as wasps and
hornets, but they frequently take possession of
some bush, or even of several parts of a hedge
around a garden, especially one well stocked
with flowers; rendering it unsafe to approach
that quarter. The combs are sometimes large,
but may, perhaps, on the average, when full,
weigh from four to ten pounds. No bees are
domesticated in India; at least I never heard of
an apiary of any description; though, from the
great abundance of food to be had at all seasons,
it might prove very easy to maintain them properly.
The truth is, that wild honey is so cheap
and abundant as to preclude the necessity for
taking any further pains to obtain it, than merely
cutting the combs away from their thorny
defences.
Bugs, such as infest our beds in Europe, are
beyond imagination numerous throughout the
East. Every charpoy, (or bedstead,) of whatever
.bn 205.png
.pn +1
size, or description, in use among the natives,
swarms with them! Hence, it is next
to impossible to prevent their getting among the
furniture, and especially into the boxes, drawers,
&c., in which cloaths are kept; and the most
careful, cleanly person, may sometimes find a stray
bug crawling upon his linen, or lying concealed
among the plaits. Musquito curtains are, on
this account also, very useful; but they should
be searched daily, lest any stragglers, &c., be on
them. Perhaps the best defence against these
nasty tormentors, is that in general use as a
preventive against the visits of ants, centipedes,
&c.; viz. causing the four posts of a bed to
stand each upon a stone, perhaps a foot in diameter,
and five or six inches deep, wherein a
deep trough is cut, which, being kept full of
water, insulates each post. Some use metal
pans, which certainly have a neater appearance,
and secure the carpet, mat, &c., from being injured
by the damp; which sometimes will find
its way, more or less, through stone, however
hard.
The natives rarely have posts to their bedsteads;
though a few, occasionally, affix a kind
of tester, by means of a staple, at the head;
those who could afford the best furniture, and
every convenience, are more pleased when attended
by a slave, or menial, who, with a small
punkah, (or fan,) gently agitates the air, and
.bn 206.png
.pn +1
keeps off flies and musquitoes. It scarcely
need be pointed out how offensive such a practice
may occasionally prove, and that when the
servant drops asleep while performing his tedious
office, the master generally will be
awaked. Some, of the natives especially,
cannot go to sleep without being lulled thereto,
by means of an operation called by Europeans
shampoing. This consists in a gentle pressure
of the feet and legs, as also of the arms and
hand, or, occasionally, of the body also, between
the hands of the operator, who passes either
slowly, or rather rapidly, according to the fancy
of his, or her, master, from one part to another.
That considerable relief is obtained from shampoing,
cannot be doubted; I have repeatedly
been restored surprizingly from severe fatigue, as
well as from a certain langor and watchfulness,
common in hot climates, and no doubt proceeding
from indigestion, or from a nervous affection,
merely by having my feet gently pressed in this
manner. It is curious, that Captain Cook
should have found this custom to be prevalent in
the Island of Tongataboo, where it is called
‘toogey-toogey,’ in allusion to the beating of a
drum with the fists. Now, the common small
drums used in India, which are suspended in front
of the body, are called ‘doog-doogies,’ and, in
some places, the natives of India, shampo, by beating
with the fists, calling the operation, not by the
.bn 207.png
.pn +1
common term debounah, (or pressing,) but doogaunah.
It is a question whether the latter
term be a corruption, or a derivative from the
doog-doogy. A similar practice obtains in
Egypt, and, indeed, throughout the Turkish empire;
especially at the baths, where shampoing
is considered a matter of course. If my memory
be correct, Captain Cook was relieved
from a severe rheumatic complaint by an operation
of this description; with this difference,
that, in lieu of soothing pressure, the parts
affected were not beat gently, but squeezed
forcibly, between the hands. I have somewhere
read, that gouty pains were in like manner removed;
but should conclude, that such could
only be flying pains; for the tenderness of parts
locally attacked by the gout, could not, I apprehend,
be invaded, without subjecting the party
to excruciating torture.
Setting apart the benefits which may occasionally
be derived from shampoing, we may consider
it as one of those luxuries which, like the
hookah, the snuff-box, the brandy-bottle, &c.,
become so habitual as to plunge us into indescribable
uneasiness whenever they may be out
of our reach; of course, it is prudent to avoid
being shampoed, except when a kind of restlessness,
or watchfulness, is induced by excess, of
any description. In such case, immediate relief
is often of great importance; but it may be proper
.bn 208.png
.pn +1
not to have recourse to the indulgence
except on emergency, since its effects are gradually
lessened by repetition, and the want of a
menial to perform the operation may cause
much irritation and disquietude.
The greatest attention is requisite to aërate
every apartment in a proper manner daily; without
that precaution, all the aids of champoing,
of musquito-curtains, water-pots, bathing, &c.,
will be of little avail, as fevers and obstructions
of the liver invariably follow, whenever the atmosphere
within a chamber is allowed to become
foul: I know not, indeed, any thing more
weakening, or more destructive to the constitution,
than sleeping in one that is deficient in
point of ventilation; and to continue in such,
after being, in any degree, indisposed, is little
less than absolute insanity! Nothing will be
found to contribute more to health than sleeping
cool; adverting, at the same time, to the precautions
already laid down, not to place the cot so
that any forcible current of air should pass over
it, lest perspiration be obstructed, and the worst
consequences be induced. The winter months
will often dictate the use of one, or perhaps two,
good thick blankets; while the summer heats
will cause the rejection of all bed-cloathing
above the body; occasioning the general use of
long drawers, which, for the most part, are made
of thin silk, or of fine calico: some have them
.bn 209.png
.pn +1
made with feet, thereby effectually preventing
musquitoes from biting in that quarter, but, to
me, such were always extremely unpleasant.
During the hottest part of the year, many dispense
with their shirts, but retain their banians,
or under-shirts, the skirts of which are confined
by the long drawers, which are usually fastened
by a drawing cord of silk. Early rising is particularly
to be recommended, for the purpose of
taking exercise before breakfast. Among military
persons this salutary practice is generally
inculcated malgré lui; and, among civilians,
ought to be so, by the additional motive of having
the forenoon devoted to office attendance, or
to whatever duties may demand notice.
The amusements offered to Europeans in India
are by no means numerous, nor are they of any
continuance; the climate, the localities, and the
occupations, of all, rendering it impossible to
partake of such variety, or in such comfort, as we
enjoy in Europe. Calcutta can boast of a very
tolerable theatre, centrically situated, and spacious
enough to contain as many spectators as
are generally to be found within the town. This
was built about fifty years ago, by subscription,
in shares of one thousand rupees each; but,
owing to the very heavy expences incurred in
getting up plays, which formerly depended entirely
on the penchant of gentlemen, who performed
.bn 210.png
.pn +1
all the characters, both male and female,
the debts became so very heavy, that the concern
fell into disrepute, and the shares were
sold for half their original value.
It may seem strange, that, while no performers
of any description were employed, the house
should get into debt; and, that since hirelings
have been engaged, it should have been in a
more flourishing state. The enigma is, however,
easy of solution. Gentlemen of property, fashion,
and consequence, were not easily controlled;
they would have new dresses for every
character, and were to be kept in humour by
good suppers after each rehearsal, some tickets
for their friends, &c., &c., &c.; so that, when all
was reckoned up, the receipts were invariably
less than the disbursements. It is true that a
gold-mohur (2 guineas) was the price of a box
admission, that the pit was half a mohur, and
the gallery a quarter of a mohur; but the house
was rarely full, and there were rarely more
than ten pieces performed during the whole
year, and those generally in December, January,
and February. The house had cost a lac of
rupees (i.e. 100,000, equal to £12,500.) in
building, and fitting up; therefore, there was a
constant demand for interest, at twelve per cent.,
equal to £1,500. yearly; that, however, was
commuted into silver tickets, which necessarily
.bn 211.png
.pn +1
diminished the receipts; causing the shares to
sink from money speculations into mere family
conveniences.
The heavy incumbrances brought on by the
above inconsiderate measures, occasioned a necessity
for letting out the theatre to any person
who would conduct the amusements in such
manner as might prevent matters from growing
worse. This accordingly was done, and a spirit
of enterprize was created in the manager thus
appointed by a majority of the proprietors,
whereby a great encrease took place in the performances,
which became chiefly dependant on
professional persons engaged at liberal salaries;
while, at the same time, few gentlemen in
the Company’s service contributed the aid of
their talents. This secession was occasioned
by the marked displeasure evinced by Marquis
Cornwallis towards all who took parts in the
dramas: it threatened to close the doors of the
theatre. A competition arising about the same
time, produced an effect which accidentally sustained
the speculation, by causing an interest,
indeed, a spirited party, to be formed, in favor of
the old house, which, in a very short time,
triumphed, and caused the opposition to give
up.
With respect to the merits of the gentlemen
performers, much may be said: there certainly
were among them some who might have
.bn 212.png
.pn +1
appeared before a London audience without any
fear of disapprobation. The names of Fleetwood,
Messink, Norfor, Golding, Bigger, Call,
Keasberry, Robinson, &c., &c., will long be
remembered by the lovers of the drama; nor will
they be easily effaced from the memory of those
in whose hearts their merits, as members of society,
were deeply impressed. The scenery was
originally furnished from England, under the
auspices of Garrick, who sent out Mr. Messink
for the purpose of regulating the theatre at its
out-set. Since that time, various additions have
been made by different artists of acknowledged
ability, among whom, Mr. Battle may be noticed
as possessing superior talents, both in that important
branch, and in the representation of various
interesting characters. It is, however, to
be expected, that, notwithstanding the great encrease
of the European population, by whom it
is almost wholly supported, the theatre must be
sold off. This, though a severe privation, where
every item in the catalogue of public amusements
is highly appreciated, will not fall heavy
on the proprietors. The facility with which the
edifice might be converted into a superb suite
of offices, or into a magnificent dwelling, would
insure them the re-payment of their money; especially
as the quantity of land reserved around
it, for the accommodation of palanquins, &c., is
extremely valuable: indeed, that alone must be
.bn 213.png
.pn +1
worth full the aggregate amount of the shares at
their ordinary value; which has generally been
about forty or fifty per cent. under par.
The temporary theatres that have at various
times been erected at the several military stations,
have always offered considerable gratification
to their several audiences. In these cheap
‘epitomes of Roman greatness’ many a good
play has been performed in an excellent style,
such as put us in mind of the mother-country,
and occasioned many a comparison by no means
derogatory to the Asiatic boards. Exclusive of
the exertions of those officers who indulged
themselves in this recreation, many of the noncommissioned
and privates of the European
regiments contributed richly to the catalogue of
histrionic characters. Some, though perhaps
not gifted with grace, nor enriched by erudition,
nevertheless displayed an accurate discrimination
of the authors’ intentions, and commanded
the applause of their audiences; among whom,
a very large portion were competent judges of
dramatic excellence.
The Calcutta race-course is situate about a
mile and a half to the southward of the town;
it is by no means duly preserved, being occasionally
much injured by the carriages of gentlemen
who frequent it as a ride. It is true there
is a clerk of the course; but he has no power to
enforce the observance of the rules laid down by
.bn 214.png
.pn +1
the Jockey-Club; he cannot, in fact, prevent
the course from being miserably defaced, and cut
up; nor can he, even when the horses are running,
keep it clear from obstructions. This evil
arises from a want of disposition in the majority
of those who frequent the place, to join in the
sports, or even to encourage them; hence, a
want of courtesy is prevalent, and the horses run
under great disadvantages. It may be said, that,
as they run only during the cold months, when
the turf is tolerably firm, little injury is done by
the carriages which travel over it; but, in answer
to this, it may be urged, that a rut, or track,
made at that time, speedily hardens, and becomes
dangerous both to the horses and to their
riders. But, where few are interested, few will
be considerate.
Many horses that have started at Calcutta
would make no contemptible figure even at Newmarket:
according to the distance, and the time
in which the course has been run over, I have
reason to believe, that a few, which could be
mentioned, might competite with the best of the
second class of British racers. Taking into consideration,
that such are entirely the result of
chance purchases, and not from any care in
breeding, it may be fairly argued that the horses
of India, by which I mean those brought from
Candahar, Lahore, the Maharrattah states, &c.,
possess considerable speed. Many, indeed, of
.bn 215.png
.pn +1
that small indigenous breed, which is usually
held in contempt, especially on the turf, have
displayed very great powers, and distanced
horses not only of considerable value, but of
high reputation. The race-grounds in other
parts of the country are not better preserved
than that at the Presidency; however, there is
ample room for toleration, both because there
are few horses kept for running; the races,
in those quarters, being merely desultory, and
the course generally marked out, pro tempore,
from some uncultivated spot; which, having
a tolerable surface, may answer the purpose
of amusement for two or three days at
Christmas.
Though there are tattoo (i.e. poney) races,
at Calcutta, few of that class are brought forward,
except after very full proof of their qualifications;
in fact, the poney-races are often
superior to those run by the best cattle on the
clerk’s register. At the out-stations, matches, or
sweepstakes, are made solely with the view to
merriment, or from whim, frolic, or periodical
elevation after a hearty regale. Here we see
cause for mirth, and, not unfrequently, find a
clumsy-looking beast, with heavy heels, and a
head like a yam, taking the lead of ‘trim-built
wherries,’ that seem to challenge competition.
I recollect a curious instance of this: a very
.bn 216.png
.pn +1
shabby, heavy-looking tattoo, belonging to Captain
Cæsar Jones, started in this adventitious
manner, and, to the surprize of all, fairly distanced
several celebrated steeds. He was sent
to Calcutta, where his uncouth appearance
caused him to be ridiculed, but there was no
standing against his speed and bottom. Hence,
he acquired the name of ‘Take-in;’ a designation
which the knowing ones feelingly acknowledged
to be highly appropriate! The spirit for
betting at races does not run very high in India;
though there have existed some characters who
devoted their whole attention to this species of
gambling: but so little encouragement offers for
speculations on the turf, that, with the exception
of a few fat pigeons, it may be said no money
has been made by racing: the wagers rarely exceed
a few gold-mohurs. Every horse becoming
so thoroughly known to all the sporting community,
little opening is left for deception or contrivance.
The smallest indication of collusion
would, in that quarter, prove instantly fatal to
reputation, and cause at least a shyness, if not
an absolute estrangement, on the part of society,
towards the offending individual. In Europe
this would not be so much felt, because a man
may change his quarters, and, for a long time,
screen himself from public, or general disapprobation;
but, in India, when an individual is cut
.bn 217.png
.pn +1
at one station, he will rarely experience common
civility at any other; his character generally preceding
him by many a day’s journey!
Gambling was formerly one of the most prominent
vices to be seen in Calcutta; but of late
years has considerably diminished. Those who
recollect the institution of Selby’s Club, and who
now contemplate the very small portion of time
dissipated, even by the younger classes, at
cards, &c., by way of ‘profit and loss,’ cannot
but approve the salutary reform introduced by
Marquis Cornwallis, who, whatever may have
been his foibles, his prejudices, and his errors,
in other matters, certainly was entitled to the
approbation of the Company, as well as to the
gratitude of their servants, for having checked
so effectually a certain licentious spirit, which
had, till his arrival, been totally uncontrolled,
indeed, unnoticed, in any shape, by his predecessors.
To expect that any Governor should be able
totally to annihilate every bad practice, would
be to consider him as vested with supernatural
powers; but, it is assuredly within the reach of
every person bearing that high office, to chace
the abandoned into their secret recesses, and
to render them at least timid, if not innocent.
By removing such characters from office, and
by persevering in resolution not to give employments
.bn 218.png
.pn +1
of emolument to any but the most assiduous,
and correct, of the Company’s servants,
much may be, much has been, done. Common
sense points out the impropriety of allowing a
gambler to occupy any office in which either
great trust, or particular application, and vigilance,
might be requisite; therefore, as the generality
of the posts held under the Company are
of either one or other of those descriptions, or
may perhaps blend both, it stands to reason that
a man whose brains are ever casting the dice,
and whose carriage rolls upon the four aces,
never can with safety be trusted.
Those who are partial to cards, as an amusement,
may find abundance of parties during the
evenings, where, for the most part, tradrille
and whist (the favorite games) are played at
such low stakes as not to be productive of
regret, or inconvenience. Quadrille is barely
known in India, nor are what we term ‘round-games’
much in use: cribbage is played in some
families, and, occasionally, loo. In all the above
games, the European inhabitants of Calcutta,
as well as those dispersed over the country, are
generally proficient; far more so than we find
persons of the same description among us: a
large portion are well acquainted with chess,
and back-gammon; and many excellent players
at fives, billiards, &c., are to be found in every
.bn 219.png
.pn +1
quarter. Cricket is not much in vogue; being
confined principally to a club at Calcutta, and
to some occasional Christmas matches at the
several army stations. On the whole, though
far less violent, as an exercise, than fives, it is
less adapted to the climate; the alternate successions
of exertion, and of inactivity, rendering
the players liable to severe colds, and to consequent
obstructions.
Music, it might be thought, would prove a
great source of gratification in a country where
ennui is so much to be dreaded; but the climate
is unfavorable to instruments of every kind,
especially to pianos, and offers a most formidable
bar to the indulgence of a musical ear. No
persons can be more liberal in their purchases of
instruments, or of select music, than the ladies
of India; they often giving two hundred pounds
for a good grand-piano; but the incessant
apprehension of warps, and cracks, is a tremendous
draw-back on the interest they feel in
the possession of even the best of its kind.
Repairs, of every sort, whether of violins,
pianos, flutes, &c., are exorbitantly dear, and,
even at Calcutta, not always practicable; either
owing to dissipation, the want of some essential
article, or the quantity of work in hand. Nor
is it easy to obtain the temporary accommodation
of an instrument while one is repairing,
.bn 220.png
.pn +1
unless at such a rate as utterly precludes all of
moderate income from availing themselves of
such an opportunity, when it may chance to
offer.
With respect to what is called ‘preparing an
instrument for the climate,’ much may certainly
be done, by taking care that only the best seasoned
wood is employed, and by clamping the
case with metal, both within and without; but
all this has little connection with the belly, or
sounding-board; which cannot be much strengthened
without considerably deteriorating the
tone, and causing a piano to be in the first
instance condemned, for want of that richness
which cannot be given to one whose vibrations
are obstructed. The only chance is, to keep a
piano well covered with blankets during the
heats, as also in very damp weather, and to uncloathe
it gradually, when about to be opened for
performance. By such precautions, the instrument
may remain tolerably in tune, and not sustain
much injury from the variations of seasons:
after two or three years the danger may be less;
but it will be prudent never to relax in point of
prevention, lest the instrument should suddenly
fail.
With the exception of such little parties as,
in a few families, assemble during the afternoons
to enjoy the pleasures arising from the musical
.bn 221.png
.pn +1
talents of some lady, Calcutta has little to offer
in this captivating branch of amusement. If
we cast out of the account some accidental
quartetto parties, or the solitary warblings of
some flute-player, &c., the whole may be
deemed a blank. Now and then a subscription
concert, for the benefit of some professor, who
lives more by means of eleemosynary bounty,
than by the encouragement of his abilities, calls
the town together, not to listen to the notes, to
the fine melodies, and rich harmonies of Haydn,
&c., but to see, and to be seen, and to talk, and
be talked to. In brief, India is not the soil to
which a man of science, or of taste, should
repair, under the hope of being liberally repaid
for his trouble and expences; much less of being
cherished for his genius and acquirements.
One or two insulated exceptions are not to be
adduced in refutation of my assertion: I am
ready to acknowledge, that, now and then, a
professor has been seen pampering under all the
influence of high and boundless patronage; but
the per contra shews a numerous list of those
who have lingered through all the penalties
attendant upon humble merit, until the grave
has kindly terminated their ill-fated labors.
Assemblies, balls, routs, &c., or under whatever
name dissipation, vanity, and luxury, may
arrange their concordance, are not very numerous
.bn 222.png
.pn +1
in India. The Governor-General, and the
Members of Council, occasionally circulate
their invitations during the cold months; and,
at times, some spacious public rooms are engaged
for the same purpose on speculation; but
I never understood that it proved lucrative.
It was not until about twenty years back that
the British had any regular church in Bengal,
and now they have but one, which was built
partly by private aid, and partly by the profits
arising—from a lottery!!! The latter was, I
understand, very forcibly opposed by one or two
gentlemen, who considered it as a very unbecoming
mode of raising supplies for so holy a purpose.
When we reflect that a Portugueze merchant
built one, for the use of the Catholics,
from his own purse; and that, though he was
accounted a rich man, yet his property could not
be compared with what various individuals, of
our own nation, resident in India, can boast; it
may be fairly quoted, as a singular instance of
parsimony against our countrymen. Not that impiety
or disrespect to public worship can be urged
against the settlement; for no church can be
better attended than that in question: the liberality
of the inhabitants was partially exemplified
by the institution of a free-school, where a number
of children, both of Europeans, and of native
mothers, are educated in a very sufficient
.bn 223.png
.pn +1
manner; a circumstance of considerable moment
where education is so dear.
This dearness should seem unreasonable, if
we only take into account the prices of provisions,
which are very low; but we must carry
in mind the enormous rates of house-rent; and
that, whatever may be the profession in which
persons proceeding to India engage, the return to
Europe with a comfortable independence is the
main consideration. Supposing ten thousand
pounds to be gained in twenty years, by attention
to his pupils, it cannot be denied, that a
pedagogue is barely rewarded for so great a
duration of slavery in such a climate, and at
such a distance from all his friends and connections.
Whatever may be the merits of the
teachers, nothing could reconcile me to bringing
up a child in India. All so educated, are rendered
unfit for the society of gentlemen who
have been brought up in Europe; they know
nothing of the world, but, while imitating the
manners and customs of those they term their
countrymen, exercise all that craft which so peculiarly
characterizes the native youths. In a
moral point of view, the detention of a child,
particularly a female, in India, is highly culpable;
and when treated of as a matter of economy,
will, in the end, be found equally objectionable.
That the disadvantage under which parents
.bn 224.png
.pn +1
labor, in sending their children to Europe,
is considerable, must be fully admitted; and, it
must also be acknowledged, that many may be
able to spare a certain monthly, or annual,
sum towards education, which could not be furnished
at once. Such parents are to be pitied;
because they can rarely have a child creditably
schooled at Calcutta for less than fifty rupees
(£75.) per mensem, all charges included;
whereas, for about half that sum, say for £40., a
much better education could be given at excellent
schools in various parts of Britain. If we
suppose £150. to be expended in transmitting a
child to Europe, and that the sum of £35. be
annually saved after arrival here, the difference,
both principal and interest, would be cleared off
in about five years; while many important advantages
would be gained, and a thousand very
obnoxious habits avoided. The encrease of population
has been followed by an augmentation
in the number of schools; but, if I judge correctly,
the latter has been rather beyond what
the former should appear to authorize. The
first school that was set up in the vicinity of
Calcutta, started about the year 1780, under the
charge of a Mrs. Hodges, who succeeded beyond
the expectations of her most sanguine patrons;
and, in the course of about twenty years,
realized a very handsome fortune, with great credit
.bn 225.png
.pn +1
to herself; and, if marrying off at an early
age be desirable, with great advantage to numerous
young ladies; who, in succession, entrapped
the hearts of sundry gay Lotharios, by whom her
dancing-room was much frequented. It would be
cruel, and unjust, in the extreme, to assert that
young women brought up at such a seminary,
were, in every respect, inferior: it must be admitted,
that they may dance, play the piano,
work at their needle, read, write, and cast accounts,
and perhaps speak French: all these may
be done to admiration; but, alas! these are, properly
speaking, merely mechanical, and, though
they may please for awhile, never can give that
zest depending solely on the enlargement of the
mind, and on some knowledge of the world.
So true is this, that not one in fifty of the girls
thus brought up can hold conversation in any
way pleasing or interesting; and, which is worse,
the other forty-nine are very apt to be childish,
vain, imperious, crafty, vulgar, and—wanton!
But they are, generally, well formed, pretty,
active, gay, and insinuating; therefore we must
not wonder at the matches we see take place,
nor at the poverty they generally entail upon
their husbands, by a certain prolific propensity
which may be said to characterize the whole
breed.
The several schools in and about Calcutta,
.bn 226.png
.pn +1
may be considered on nearly the same footing as
in Europe; some dear, others more reasonable;
some good, others highly exceptionable. Most
of them are well situated, so far as relates to
convenience and salubrity; but it appears to me,
that more than one of the seminaries for young
ladies are subject to overlook objects by no
means suited to female delicacy, and, in a great
measure, derogatory to the judgment of those
who selected such sites for their establishments.
Those academies which are about two or three
miles out of town, are certainly preferable in the
above respect; while, at the same time, they are
not beyond the common distance to which
bearers are in the habit of conveying their employers
on visits during the forenoon.
In a former part, I cursorily made mention of
the old fort, in which stood the Black-Hole, so
famous in history. This fortress is now converted
into public-offices and warehouses, for both
which purposes it is admirably adapted, from the
centrical situation it occupies, and from the
great solidity of the walls, &c. The defences
are extremely simple, and might answer well
enough for the times in which they were constructed,
as well as for the prowess of the troops
by which they were likely to be attacked: being
on the bank of the river Hoogly, a retreat by
water might easily be effected under the cover
.bn 227.png
.pn +1
of shipping; and, by the same means, supplies
could generally be afforded. According to the
present system of warfare, and the probability of
being attacked by an European army, it would
be unsafe to place the smallest reliance on the
old fort, further than as an immediate asylum in
the event of insurrection; in which case, many
houses that now command the works must be
destroyed: this, owing to the want of cannon
on the ramparts, would not be an easy operation.
The town is protected chiefly by Fort-William,
a more modern work, capable of containing
at least fifteen thousand men; the defences,
indeed, require near ten thousand to man
them properly. The garrison ordinarily consists
of two or three regiments of Europeans, a battalion
of artillery, with a very large establishment
of artificers, &c., attached to the arsenal,
where stores of every description are lodged in
bomb-proofs. Provisions, equal to six months’
consumption, are always kept in the fort. The
native corps, intended to aid in the defence, and
of which the amount may be from four to five
thousand, are cantoned at Barrackpore, a station
about sixteen miles from Calcutta, on the banks
of the river, and exactly facing the Danish town
of Serampore. Of these troops, about twelve
hundred constantly do duty in the fort; being
relieved monthly in regular rotation. Fort-William
.bn 228.png
.pn +1
is the grand depôt of Bengal, and may
be considered as the key to that part of the
Company’s possessions, if not to the whole; for
it does not appear probable that any effectual
resistance could be made, if that fortress were
to fall into the hands of the enemy. Such a loss
would infallibly destroy the opinion now held of
our prowess, and precipitate us from the pinnacle
of power, into an awful abyss of ruin!
As Mr. Hastings very properly stated, ‘our
power in the East depends entirely on opinion.’
When we consider the immense population over
which we hold control, with comparatively an
insignificant force, and, that that force is composed
chiefly of natives, it must immediately
occur to us how necessary it is to satisfy our
Asiatic subjects that our sway is mild, and that,
in submitting to us, they rescue themselves
from tyranny and extortion.
There may arise local circumstances wherein
the possession of a strong hold would be invaluable;
and rescue us from the most imminent
dangers. Of this, our affair with Cheyt Sing is
a most obvious and undeniable proof: had not
the fortress of Chimar, a place rather of reputed,
than of real, strength, been at hand, our
force in that part must have been annihilated;
when the insurrection would infallibly have
spread in every direction.
.bn 229.png
.pn +1
Without entering into particulars, I shall give
a brief statement of the Company’s forces at
their several presidencies; observing, that the
number of their European regiments has been
considerably diminished, amounting, nearly, to
a total reduction, for the purpose of making way
for the introduction of king’s troops. With respect
to the European strength, therefore, it must
be understood that no fixed establishment
exists: but the average amount of that branch,
independent of the Company’s battalions of
artillery and infantry, may be taken at about
sixteen or eighteen thousand firelocks, including
the cavalry.
.if t
.in 8
.nf
—————————————+——————————————————————————————
Presidencies.|Cavalry, Native, Regiments.
| +——————————————————————————
| |Infantry, Native, Regiments.
| | +——————————————————————
| | |Artillery, Battalions, European.
| | | +——————————————————
| | | |Infantry, Battalion, European.
| | | | +——————————————
| | | | |Marine, Battalions, Native.
—————————————+———+———+———+———+——————————————————
Bengal | 8 |27 | 3 | 1 | 0
Madras | 8 |25 | 2 | 1 | 0
Bombay | 0 | 9 | 1 | 1 | 1
—————————————+———+———+———+———+——————————————————
.nf-
.in
.if-
.if h
.pm start_quote
.ta l:12 r:12 r:12 r:12 r:12 r:12
Presidencies.|Cavalry, Native, Regiments.|Infantry, Native, Regiments.|Artillery, Battalions, European.|Infantry, Battalion, European.|Marine, Battalions, Native.
_
Bengal | 8 |27 | 3 | 1 | 0
Madras | 8 |25 | 2 | 1 | 0
Bombay | 0 | 9 | 1 | 1 | 1
_
.ta-
.pm end_quote
.if-
At each presidency, the native regiments are
formed into two battalions, with the same
strength of European commissioned officers as
are allotted to one regiment of Europeans. A
colonel commands each regiment, and every battalion
has attached to it one lieutenant-colonel,
and one major, together with a proportion of the
.bn 230.png
.pn +1
captains and subaltern officers. Two serjeants
are allowed to each battalion, viz. one acting as
serjeant-major, the other under the quartermaster.
The companies are commanded by European
officers, under whom, one soubadar, one
jemmadar, five havildars, five naicks, and ninety
privates, (sepoys,) are enrolled. The soubadars
and jemmadars have commissions, and are competent
to sit on regimental, or line, courts-martial
for the trial of natives, whether in the military
service, or camp followers. The havildars
correspond in rank and duties with our serjeants,
and the naicks, with our corporals. Each battalion
has two grenadier, and eight battalion
companies: no recruit is taken whose age exceeds
twenty-five, or whose stature does not
reach to five feet six inches and a half, or, more
generally, to five feet seven inches; unless on
emergency, or when obvious juvenility warrants
the acceptance of an under-sized candidate;
who, generally, being well fed, and taught to
stand erect, in the course of drilling over-tops
the standard of admission.
Reference to the table of pay and allowances
in the Directory, will prove useful to those who
may proceed to India, and may serve to guide
those who are not acquainted with the particulars
of income in that quarter. The usual exchange
is two shillings and sixpence per sicca
.bn 231.png
.pn +1
rupee, about five per cent. better than the sonaut
rupee, which is the standard of military payments.
In viewing the sum-total of an officer’s
pay, when reduced to English currency, which
may be done with tolerable correctness at the
above rate of eight rupees to the pound sterling,
very considerable allowance must be made for
the inevitable expences, &c., incident, not only
to military men, but to all residing in India. This
consideration will amount to a very plain, and
correct, conclusion, viz. that though a subaltern
officer may live on his pay, provided his out-set
be duly allowed for, yet, that he must have more
than ordinary luck, or possess a bent towards
parsimony by no means to be envied, and rarely
attaining its object, to enable his saving a few
pounds within the year.
This is necessary to be well understood, and,
when understood, ought to be ever carried in
mind by those who expect a young man on his
arrival, as a cadet, in India, to support himself
without adventitious aids. That he may do
so, by arranging a proper plan with others of his
class, cannot be denied; but to effect this, not
only all luxuries, but, what in India are considered
the necessaries of life, must be relinquished.
On receiving a commission, his allowances,
of course, are considerably augmented,
but, on the other hand, his expences will be rather
.bn 232.png
.pn +1
greater; and this unavoidably, and exclusive
of his equipment to join his corps.
Therefore, let no unreasonable expectations
be entertained, merely from observing the gross
sum of annual receipts; let not the parent, who
can spare a moderate sum towards his son’s comfort,
deny it for the few first years after the latter
may arrive in India. The best mode of effecting
this, in a proper manner, is through some respectable
agency-house, which should have the
power to afford seasonable aids, under the injunction
not to encourage, nor to tolerate, extravagance.
Those sanguine ideas too often entertained
by persons not in affluent circumstances,
that their sons, brothers, &c., should remit to
them, yearly, a portion of their pay, ought to be
peremptorily suppressed; the illusion should be
done away; otherwise, inconvenience at least, if
not ruin, may be entailed!
To shew how folks, on this side the water,
sometimes err, I shall relate an anecdote which
may prove serviceable to many; the circumstance
happened, within my own knowledge, to
a brother subaltern with whom I was very
intimate. He had, from the day of his admission
to the service, formed the resolution of
amassing a certain sum, which should be devoted
to the comfort of three sisters he had left
in Scotland, and who, he knew, would not,
.bn 233.png
.pn +1
in the meanwhile, be destitute of support. At
the end of about his tenth year of service,
his favorite object was effected, and he remitted
to them no less than twelve hundred pounds,
i.e. four hundreds to each, with a letter, expressing
his satisfaction at being enabled to provide
them the means of improving their diet,
&c.; closing his brotherly epistle with the
assurance, that, in so doing, he had surrendered
his all; and that, as it was his intention thenceforward
to lay by every spare rupee for the
purpose of retiring from the service, they were
to expect no further aid until his demise. The
good souls were astonished at the receipt of so
handsome a present, which they never had
expected; they put their heads together, and,
after many a pleasing confab., in which expectation,
rather than gratitude, doubtless was
expressed, made up their minds to the full conviction
that their brother was as rich as a Jew,
and that there was no occasion for economy in
future. They made their good fortune known,
both by words, and by the encrease of their establishment,
&c., &c.; and, for a year or more,
made a very gay appearance on the strength
of their brother’s money; but, as that was
rather ‘of a perishable nature,’ and because,
as poor Richard says, ‘going often to the meal-tub,
but never putting in, will soon find the
.bn 234.png
.pn +1
bottom,’ bills, and demands of various kinds,
began to accumulate, and the ladies were reduced
to considerable distress. In this awkward
predicament, application was made to the
agent through whom the payment had been paid
in London; but he knew nothing whatever of
their brother’s concerns, nor could he venture to
make them any advance upon the bills of exchange
they proposed to give him. Reduced to
the last extremity by their own imprudence,
they wrote him a most extraordinary letter,
which was submitted to my perusal, wherein,
among other matters, they reproached him as
having occasioned their distress ‘by not having
been punctual in the ANNUAL REMITTANCE he
had led them to expect!’ The foregoing fact, I am
thoroughly satisfied could be matched, if many
family occurrences, of which the public do not
hear, were exposed to view. The number of
questions I have been obliged to answer, and
the evident disappointments that have resulted
from my candid exposition of the subjects in
question, leave not a doubt in my mind, that
the most preposterous expectations are often
(as in the above instance) formed upon very
slight grounds, or even without the smallest
foundation.
According to the regulations, every man in
the service ought to be paid monthly; but this
.bn 235.png
.pn +1
is not always done, even in times of peace, on
account of the collections, i.e. the revenues,
being received only at particular periods: if
nothing particular should occur to occasion the
monies being otherwise appropriated, the deputy
pay-masters at the several stations receive notice,
that the amount of pay, due to the troops
attached thereto, may be received; otherwise,
it sometimes happens that two, three, or more
months, elapse without any such notice being
given. It is inconceivable to what inconvenience
such delays give birth! No regimental
pay-master, no regimental agent, no
certain means of obtaining a supply of cash,
in general, exist. Consequently, recourse must
be had to the native money-lenders, of whom I
have already made honorable mention. When a
notice arrives at the deputy pay-master’s office,
application is made by him for an escort,
generally of a company of sepoys, under the
command of an European officer, which proceeds
to that civil station whence the supplies
are to be derived. Sometimes, however, the
escort is detained for many days, or even for
weeks; this is usually owing to sudden calls for
remittances having been received, when, of
course, the escort had better wait for fresh
receipts than return empty handed.
Payments are made in specie, generally in
.bn 236.png
.pn +1
silver; the sicca rupees of Lucknow, Benares,
Patna, &c., being held as sonauts, in which the
pay of the whole army is calculated. When
much gold is received at a station, but especially
at the Presidency, that coin is instantly depreciated,
to the great loss of every military man.
In some instances, payments are made to troops
by means of bills of exchange, payable at short
dates: this answers very well for small sums,
in situations not authorizing the detachment of
a party to escort from a considerable distance,
provided the party on whom the bill is given be
a responsible man, which is very generally the
case; for, though we do sometimes hear of a
shroff (i.e. native banker) stopping payment,
very little apprehension need be entertained
as to the punctuality of those on whom respectable
firms draw, as they usually do, at fifty-one
days.
This is done with the view to induce the party
who is to receive the money, to discount with
him who is to pay it; thus deriving to the
drawer of the bill a double profit. It happens
sometimes, as I once experienced, that some
little pretended informality is not discovered
until the bill becomes due, when it is generally
returned to be rectified: by this device, an additional
profit is exacted. I do not apply these
cases to all the shroffs, but notice them as being
.bn 237.png
.pn +1
occasionally within the sphere of an European’s
disappointments, and to caution against a too
hasty acceptance of bills from any shroff not
established in character, as well as in property.
With respect to the recovery of sums advanced
on bills of exchange, extreme difficulty
very generally prevails. The bankrupt laws of
Britain do not extend to her colonies, and, if
they did, it could be to the several presidencies
only; beyond their immediate sites, the several
courts of judicature have no immediate authority
over any but British subjects. About
thirty years back, the Supreme Court at Calcutta
made an attempt to extend its powers
into the interior, and to take cognizance of civil
matters between the native inhabitants, but
they were personally opposed, and such serious
consequences were apprehended, that the enterprize
was relinquished, and the judges compelled
to confine their operations to the letter
of that act by which they had been sent to
India.
Until within the last ten years, the troops in
the upper provinces received an addition to their
pay, under the name of ‘double-full-batta,’ originally
given by the Nabob Vizier of Oude to
the officers serving within his dominions, and
by the Company to all who served beyond their
own immediate possessions: this has, however,
.bn 238.png
.pn +1
been abrogated, and full-batta is now the
highest pay given on any occasion. When the
above allowance, i.e. double-full-batta, was in
force, the upper provinces were considered preferable
in point of emolument; but, on account of
the great prices of liquors, and of all articles,
excepting immediate table provision, in demand
among European gentlemen, very little advantage
was gained from the receipt of greater pay;
except by those who proceeded upon a plan
of determined economy, and retired from the
great circle of society for the express purpose of
living within certain bounds, whatever privations
they might endure. Such persons necessarily
acquired property in proportion to their receipts;
an object of great importance where the
legal interest is twelve per cent., and where
abundance of government securities at ten per
cent. have been generally for sale at par, or
nearly so, in the money market. Under such
favorable circumstances, the first saving was
invaluable; it was sure to accumulate, and commonly
was doubled in about seven years. Since
the abolition of ‘double-full-batta,’ the Presidency
is considered the best station, so many
opportunities offering of making cheap purchases
at the several daily auctions in Calcutta,
only sixteen miles from the cantonments at Barrackpore.
In a gig, the distance may be easily
.bn 239.png
.pn +1
ran in two hours, the road being remarkably
good; in a palanquin, the journey may occupy
about four hours, if a relay of bearers be posted
at the half-way bungalow. During the rains,
and especially when the tide serves, a well-manned
pulwar, or a paunchway, or dingy,
(small boats calculated for expedition,) may
proceed from Barrackpore to Calcutta in little
more than an hour; the return is rarely very
quick, except during spring-tides in the dry-season,
before the river rises. Care must be
taken to start with the first of the tide, but not
before the baun, or bore, has past.
Those who have seen the bore in the Medway,
and in the Severn, will at once comprehend the
dangers attendant upon that impetuous rush of
the waters, which, in the Hoogly, begins near
Fultah, about forty miles below Calcutta, and
may be felt even so high as Nia-serai, full thirty-five
miles above the capital. In a work entitled
‘The Oriental Voyager,’ by J. Johnson, Esq.,
Surgeon in the Royal Navy, at page 80, is the
following passage. Speaking of the Ganges, he
says, ‘The tides in this river, particularly at
full and change, are rapid beyond belief, forming
what are called boars, or bores, when the stream
seems tumbling down a steep descent, doing great
mischief among the boats, by upsetting and running
them over each other: ships themselves are
.bn 240.png
.pn +1
frequently dragged from their anchors, and dashed
furiously against each other, at these periods.
They attempt to account for these torrents, by
saying they depend on the other small rivers,
that open into the main one by bars; which, at
a certain time of the tide, allow the waters to
rush out, all at once, into the great stream, and
thereby so much encrease its velocity!’
Where Mr. Johnson got his information about
these bars, I know not; nor would it be possible,
in my humble opinion, for any man to have
disguised, or confused, the fact more completely
than is done in the above paragraph: a
circumstance which creates surprize, when we
consider, that the volume in question contains
many remarks, inducing us to expect the absence
of so unphilosophical a description, and so erroneous
a conception. The matter lies in a nutshell,
as Mr. Johnson ought to have known:
viz. Those rivers whose mouths are much expanded,
and that, after a course of several miles,
during which their banks are nearly parallel,
suddenly contract, are subject to bores; that is,
to an immense wave which heads the flood tide.
This bore, which is described with justice as
being very powerful, arises from the contraction
of the channel; which, while it directs the great
volume of water into a narrowed space, necessarily
compels it to assume a greater height.
.bn 241.png
.pn +1
The successive flow drives on the leading wave,
which gradually subsides as it becomes more
distant from the propelling power. But the bore
rarely, if ever, occupies the whole breadth of
the stream; it ordinarily runs upon one side,
until it comes to a bend, when it crosses over,
and continues its action until another turn of the
river causes it to cross again; and thus until
its force is expended. The bore does not run
under Calcutta, but along the opposite bank;
it crosses at Chitpore, about four miles above
the fort, and ranges with great violence past
Barnagore, Duckensore, &c. Lesser rivers,
whose mouths lie embayed; as is the case with
the Medway, which branches from the Thames,
and the Wye, that falls into the Severn, are
subject to bores, in consequence of the tide
taking such a course as throws the great body
of water into them. In such small streams, the
bore will generally be tremendous; because so
great an expanse is suddenly thrown into so
narrow a channel: hence, the bridge at Chepstow
is necessarily raised to so great a height,
and by floating made to yield to the tide’s force.
I much fear Mr. Johnson was not very successful
in his enquiries, nor over fastidious in
his acceptance of vulgar errors; for, I observe,
that at page 113, he has allowed himself to be
egregiously duped regarding Mannacolly Point;
.bn 242.png
.pn +1
so called, from the village of Mannacolly, which
formerly stood there. Mr. Johnson tells us a
long story about a lady proceeding to India, and
finding her husband a corpse at that place:
whence, ‘Melancholy Point.’!!! I am well
aware, that the same fable has been retailed to
many others, who gaped for information; but
that is no apology for its being upheld as
matter of fact: had any respectable authority
been consulted on the occasion, before the
volume was committed to press, so palpable a
traditional error would not have been offered to
that public, among whom so many are equal to
its refutation.
What Mr. Johnson states respecting the injuries
done to ships by the bore, is at times verified,
but they are rarely worthy of notice: if a
vessel be properly secured, the bore will have little
effect on her safety, though the swell may cause
her to pitch rather deep for a while. During
the rainy season there is no bore; which is to be
accounted for by the tide being so weakened at
its entrance into the narrows near Fultah, as not
to be competent to form such a wave as precedes
it at other seasons; but, in exchange for this,
a violent eddy, and great agitation of the waters,
takes place between Diamond-Harbour and
that place. It has been several times my lot,
when proceeding with the last of the tide from
.bn 243.png
.pn +1
Barrackpore to Calcutta, to meet the bore, generally
near Chitpore; but, as its approach was
indicated by the putting off of all the small
craft from that shore, along which it invariably
pursued its course, and to remain near which
would be dangerous, my boat-men always followed
the example, and kept along the centre;
where, though we were tossed about famously,
no danger existed. Once, indeed, in turning
Sulky Point, in a sailing boat, I was obliged to
dash through the bore, which I did not suppose
to be so near, notwithstanding the dingies, &c.,
were putting out. The surf assuredly appeared
awful, but we mounted over it, stem on, without
difficulty, and speedily recovered from a
certain pallid complexion which had insensibly
crept over our countenances, as we approached
the roaring waters. From what has been said,
it must be evident that the bore travels at the
same rate as the incipient spring-tide, the velocity
of which is different in various parts, but
may be taken at an average of full twenty miles
within the hour. Notwithstanding this rapidity,
vessels, such as budjrows, and other craft,
intended for pleasure, or for burthen, ordinarily
ride safe at anchor; sustaining no injury from
the bore, though they may perhaps drag their
anchors a few yards. But, to insure this security,
care must be taken that the broadside should not
.bn 244.png
.pn +1
be exposed; else there will be great danger of
over-setting: this danger is not unfrequent,
owing to the manjies and dandies (boatmen)
neglecting, especially during the night, to swing
the stern round, either by means of a spring, or
a small hawser, or by luggies (bamboo-poles);
so that the vessel’s head may meet the bore in its
direct course.
Those who are anxious to make the best of
their way, should not delay putting off until the
tide may have fairly set in, but ought to be
out in the stream just as the bore is ranging
along the bank, so that they may receive the first
impulse, which is prodigiously forcible, and
endeavor, by the exertions of their boatmen, to
keep up, as much as may be practicable, with
the leading waters. It is wonderful how great a
difference this sometimes makes in the start from
Calcutta! Sometimes a budjrow may, by this
precaution, reach beyond Bandel, and nearly to
the ultimatum of the tide’s way, after which,
the current is invariably in opposition, at various
rates, according to the season of the year. During
the dry season, which includes from the end
of October to the middle of June, though sometimes
the rains are of greater duration, or set in
earlier, the Hoogly river is nearly in a state of
rest above Nia-serai; but, during the rains, and
especially about August and September, not
.bn 245.png
.pn +1
only the beds of the rivers, but the country
around, present a formidable body of water.
Within the banks, the current may average from
four to eight miles an hour, according to localities,
but what is called ‘the inundation,’ rarely
exceeds half a mile; and, I believe, never moves
at a full mile within that time.
In this, due allowance must be made whether
the waters are rising, or falling: in the former
instance, they will become nearly stationary until
they may overflow where nearest the sea, and
thus obtain a vent; in the latter case, such parts
as may be near to great rivers, then subsiding
within their banks, must be greatly accelerated.
As the parched soil of Egypt is refreshed by
the overflowing of the Nile, so do the waters of
the Ganges, by their annual expansion and abundance,
renew the fertility of many millions of
acres, and restore the blessings of health to those
industrious and peaceable peasantry inhabiting
that flat country through which they majestically
wind their course.
At Calcutta, and Dacca, each of which is
about seventy miles from the sea, not only is the
water unpalatable, from its saline impregnation,
but even the sand, taken from the beds of the
rivers, is found to retain so much moisture, notwithstanding
the heat of the climate, as to disqualify
it from mixture in the cements used for
.bn 246.png
.pn +1
building, but especially for making tarrases,
known to us here under the designation of grist
floors.
The great tank at Calcutta, which occupies a
space of about ten acres, is not less than two
hundred yards from the river. The soil is generally
a rich sandy loam near the surface, but
becomes rather looser, and inclinable to a fine
gravel, after digging about ten feet. The tank
may be sixty feet from the top of its banks,
(which are level with the streets,) to its bottom;
and the river is from four to seven fathoms deep
opposite its site. We should conclude that such
a distance would secure the waters of the tank
from becoming brackish; but the soil favors the
communication with the river, and, during the
hot season, occasions the tank to be so strongly
impregnated as to be unfit for either culinary
purposes, or for washing. What is more remarkable,
the wells in the different out-works of Fort-William,
some of which are four or five hundred
yards from the river, partake equally of the moisture:
so much, indeed, as to have caused Government
to be at a great expence in forming an
immense reservoir, (to be filled, if required, by
rain water,) occupying the whole of one of the
bastions.
It should be here noticed, that, during the
rainy season, the rivers are full up to their banks,
.bn 247.png
.pn +1
and run with such force, often six or eight
miles in the hour, as to occasion the tide to be
little felt, either at Calcutta, or at Dacca; consequently,
the whole of the water, both of the
rivers, and of the tanks and wells, becomes fresh
and pure. On the other hand, during the hot
months, viz. March, April, May, and part of
June, when, except during a north-wester, or
squall incident to the season, not a drop of rain
is to be expected, the waters are every where
proportionably low; and, as the tides come up
with extreme force, we must conclude the portion
of sea-water to be very considerable. Such
is the fact; for those who visit either Calcutta,
or Dacca, at that season, and who drink even
of the tank-water, are sure to feel its cathartic
effects, and, eventually, to suffer under a very
troublesome kind of itch. At Dacca, where the
air is more saline, all visitors undergo the penance
of a copious eruption: some of the old residents
have a return of it every hot season; although
they may be extremely careful never to touch
river water, but, like the inhabitants of Calcutta,
allot a spacious godown to the reception of immense
jars of earthen ware, which, being placed
side by side, in close rows, are successively filled
by the aub-dar, or servant whose business is confined
to the care, and to the cooling, of water for
table expenditure. The water thus preserved is
.bn 248.png
.pn +1
caught in large vessels, placed under the several
spouts that conduct it thereto, during heavy falls
of rain; the quantity varies according to the
consumption, but we may ordinarily compute
that of a family at Calcutta to amount to full
sixty or seventy hogsheads within the year. In
the course of a few weeks, each vessel will be
found to contain innumerable larvæ, occasioned
by musquitoes, and other insects, and which
would, in a certain time, taint the fluid. It is
therefore customary to strain the whole so soon
as the larvæ are discovered, and afterwards to
plunge into each jar an immense mass of iron,
made red-hot; whereby whatever animalculæ
may have escaped through the strainer may be
destroyed. This being done, some alum is dissolved
in water, and a sufficient quantity put
into each vessel to fine its contents. Some, and
I think the practice should be more generally
adopted, after the foregoing operations, sprinkle
a quantity of very fine sand on the surface of the
water in each jar; thereby giving, to whatever
gross particles it may contain, a tendency to precipitation.
It may, at first view, appear that, in
the common course of society, gentlemen must
be subject to partake of water which may not
have been so scrupulously purified, and perhaps
brought from some neighbouring tank, or from a
river, impregnated by the influx of a brackish
.bn 249.png
.pn +1
tide. Such may, assuredly, be the case occasionally;
but it will be found, on reference to what
has been said of the duties of the aub-dar, or
water-servant, that purified water is carried by
a bearer, in a bangy, or perhaps in a soorye,
or earthen jug, to the house at which his master
is to dine. In camp, it is a very general custom
for every guest’s servant to supply his master
with water of his own purifying; which is effected
either by means of alum, or of some other
astringent producing a similar effect.
The waters in the great rivers have various
sources; but, speaking generally of the Ganges,
which receives almost all the other rivers in its
course from those mountains among which it
has its source, to the Bay of Chittagong, where
it empties itself into the sea in an immense expanse,
we may divide its properties according
to the countries through which it passes. Hence
the various opinions that have been entertained
of its qualities; which have been generally
mentioned in a very loose, indiscriminate manner,
without reference to the various soils
whereby its purity must be affected, in a country
where, as in Egypt, annual inundations prevail;
or where, at least, such immense quantities
of rain fall as would astonish a person not
habituated to the most impetuous showers.
The Ganges takes its rise at the back of the
.bn 250.png
.pn +1
Kammow Hills, beyond Hurdwar, where it
issues forth as a narrow, but rapid stream, from
among broken rocks, and soon spreads to some
extent in the fertile plains of the Rohilcund
district, which it divides from the province of
Delhi. The natives of India rarely venture
beyond Hurdwar. They have, however, an
opinion that the true Ganga, as they term the
Ganges, originates at that spot; and, considering
the cow as the greatest blessing given to
mankind, (for the Hindus venerate it with even
more fervor than a Catholic does a supposed
relic of our Saviour,) emphatically term it ‘the
Cow’s Mouth;’ implying thereby the purity, as
well as the value, of the waters.
But those mountains which give birth to the
Ganges, are likewise the sources of the Barampooter;
a river exceeding even the Ganges in
capacity! These two immense streams deviate
at their origin to opposite quarters; the Ganges
proceeding westward, and the Barampooter
eastward. The former, after winding at the
back of the Kammow and Nagrocote Mountains,
passes Hurdwar, and, proceeding in a
devious track through the plains of Oude, Allahabad,
Benares, Bahar, Jungleterry, Mauldah,
Comercally, Dacca, and other subordinate districts,
receives the Luckyah, as a branch from
the Barampooter, and a few miles below Dacca
.bn 251.png
.pn +1
unites with that river; whence, under the designation
of ‘the Megna,’ they pursue their
course for about sixty miles to the eastern part
of the Bay of Bengal, forming by their junction
a volume of water, encreasing, from about seven,
to twenty miles in width.
In the upper country, the Ganges receives
various inferior streams, such as the Doojoorah,
the Cally-Nuddy, the Goombeerah, the Gunduck,
the Mahanuddy, the Rooee, the Jumma,
the Goomty, the Carimnassa, the Gogra, (or
Dewah,) the Soane, the Coosah, and various
other streams not vying in extent with the
Ganges, but generally equal to the Thames at
London. The Gogra, the Soane, and the Coosah,
are, indeed, rivers of the second class; as
wide as the Thames at Gravesend.
From Sooty, which is in the Jungleterry district,
the Ganges throws off a considerable
branch: this widening in a curious manner,
under the name of the Baug-Retty, passes
Moorshadabad, formerly the seat of the government
of Bengal, under Sooraja Dowlah, Meer
Jaffiers, and their ancestors; at length, after a
course of about 150 miles, it meets at Nuddeah,
with the Jellinghy, also detached from the
Ganges, whence the two form a large river under
the name of the Hoogly, which, flowing under
Hoogly, Bandel, Chinsurah, Chandernagore,
.bn 252.png
.pn +1
Serampore, Calcutta, and many inferior places,
empties itself into the western end of the Bay
of Bengal, having previously received the Roopnariam,
and the Dummoodah.
In its course from Bagwangolah, which stands
near to Sooty, the Ganges sends a great variety
of small streams through the Jessore, and Mahomedpore
districts, which, meeting with large
inlets from the sea, form an immense labyrinth
of deep waters, intersecting that wild country
called the Sunderbunds, in such various mazes
as to require a pilot for their navigation.
Having thus detailed the courses of the rivers,
I shall account for their rise and fall; as thereon
many physical points of the utmost importance
will be found to depend: the various soils
through which they pass will be described, and
enable us to judge more correctly, of the causes
of that variety of character attached to the waters
in various parts.
The Thibet Mountains, which form the north-east
boundary of a long valley, stretching from
Napaul to Sirinaghur, are covered with snow all
the year. Their height must be very great; for,
on a clear day, they may be seen from the Golah
at Patna, though distant little less than 300
miles. From the north-west part of this Alpine
range, the Ganges and Barampooter derive
their sources, as before described, back to back
.bn 253.png
.pn +1
from the same mountains. To the dissolution
of a part of the snow which cloaths their summits,
we may, perhaps, safely attribute a slight
encrease that takes place about the middle of
May in those rivers: fluctuating, more or less,
at intervals, until the periodical rains set in;
generally about the middle of June. Some have
ascribed their rise to heavy rains in the countries
through which the streams pass; but such cannot
be considered as the true cause, for various
reasons. Firstly, those rains must be extremely
heavy if they tended to swell the rivers; the
ground being parched, and requiring great moisture
to saturate it. Secondly, the encrease is
not attendant with any turbid appearance; as
would indisputably result from such heavy rains,
as, after saturating the thirsty soil, could raise
such large rivers, often a foot, or more. Thirdly,
there are other rivers which derive their sources
from the Kammow Hills, and from the Morungs,
not so distant from the Thibet Hills but that
they might be expected to receive their share of
the rains, and to shew some encrease, which
they do not; the rise being confined to the
Ganges and Barampooter, whose sources lie
among the snow-clad mountains. Fourthly, the
encrease happens at the hottest time of the year,
and the water loses the genial warmth imparted
by the solar ray, becomes harder, and, in the
upper country, near Annopshier, about sixty
.bn 254.png
.pn +1
miles below the Cow’s Mouth, is found, at that
particular season, to cause acute bowel complaints,
which is not the case at other seasons.
Add to this, that, among the natives of the
countries above Hurdwar, the goiture, or wen in
the throat, in some measure prevails: a strong
symptom of the dissolution of snow.
The following may, generally, be considered
the soils peculiar to the several provinces through
which the Ganges has its course, after leaving
Hurdwar. The west bank is generally high all
the way to Benares, and consists, with little
exception, of lime, concreted into irregular
masses, much like roots of ginger, or Jerusalem
artichokes, of various sizes, some weighing perhaps
five or six pounds, others scarcely an ounce.
These are of a ginger, or ash color; though some,
being more mixed with the gravelly part of the
soil, are of a yellowish red. This kind of concretion
is known throughout India by the name
of kunkur, and, when burnt, yields a very inferior
kind of cement, friable, and not very
tenacious in regard to the body whereto it is
applied, nor hardening so as to resist moisture
effectually.
All the rivers, therefore, which issue from
the western bank, are, more or less, impregnated
with this kind of lime; while, on the opposite
bank, the waters partake of a strong solution of
nitre, with which most of the plains of Oude,
.bn 255.png
.pn +1
Fyzabad, Gazypore, &c., abound. Such is the
abundance, that the Company are induced to
prohibit the salt-petre manufactured in the
Nabob Vizier of Oude’s dominions, from being
imported within their own provinces; otherwise,
the cheapness of the former, which is usually
sold at Furruckabad for about two shillings and
sixpence per cwt., would destroy the manufactories
at Patna, where it ordinarily sells for double
that price.
The country lying between the Ganges and
the Goomty, (on the eastern bank,) from Currah
to Benares, is replete with alkali in a fossile
state, known by the name of sudjy. This is
usually found on the surface, at the close of the
rainy season especially, when it begins to shew
itself very obviously, and is pared off with mattocks;
rising in large cellular strata from one to
three inches in thickness, and much resembling
thin free-stone, though far more porous. In
this state it is carried to market, where it is purchased
by the manufacturers of soap at Allahabad,
Patna, and other places; it is generally
combined with oil, and, when ready, sells at
about ten shillings the maund of 80lb. At Calcutta
it is ordinarily sold at about 50 per cent.
profit. It is made in baskets, is of a dark color,
and very moist.
It is curious that the inhabitants of these
countries have never turned their thoughts to
.bn 256.png
.pn +1
the effects produced by these substances. On
the western bank the people are subject to nephritic
complaints, which they generally express
under the vague term of kummer-ka-dook (or
pains in the back); while, on the eastern bank,
they are troubled with the moormoory, (or gripes,)
with which those living inland, especially, are
severely afflicted, owing to their use of tank-water.
During the rainy season, these powerful
agents combine, and give birth to most alarming
and excruciating maladies, which, however,
readily yield to a few gentle cathartics, aided by
congee, (or rice-water,) by which the intestines
are sheathed. The natives generally have recourse
to opiates; whereby they often fix the
disease. In the dry season, that is, from the
end of October to the middle of June, the river
water, having deposited the noxious particles, is
remarkably clear and wholesome; except when
the rise takes place, about the middle or end of
May, as before related. The bed of the river
being invariably a coarse sand, occasionally
blended with immense sheets of kunkur, whereof
the banks are formed for miles in some parts,
easily receives the lime and alkali, leaving the
running waters clear, and free from those substances.
Europeans never drink of water fresh drawn
in any situation; it being always left to stand
.bn 257.png
.pn +1
for at least one day; during which, a copious
deposit takes place: in the rainy season, perhaps
full a fourth of the contents of the vessel.
Some gentlemen are very particular in having
their water boiled.
The low plains of the Shawabad and Buxar
districts, situate on the western bank of the
Ganges, are chiefly cultivated with rice, while
the higher parts are productive of white corn,
opium, sugar, &c. The swamps near Saseram,
bordering the range of hills at the western boundary,
and which come round to Chunar, are
annually in a state of partial corruption, sufficient
to occasion terribly malignant diseases,
about November; when the sun’s power promotes
an astonishing evaporation, filling the air
with miasma, and spreading destruction among
all the living tribes. But those waters are, in
themselves, highly dangerous; both on account
of the putrefaction of the vegetables they contain,
and of the powerful coalition of various
mineral streams, which, having in the rainy
season exceeded their ordinary limits, stray into
the low country, and mix with the already deleterious
mass. Finding a discharge for their
redundancy, by means of the multitude of fissures,
or small channels, every where existing,
these blend with the purer torrents, occasioned
by the impetuous rains, and cause a fever to
.bn 258.png
.pn +1
prevail, which, in addition to the lime and nitre
already afloat, perform wonders in the cause of
desolation.
This assemblage of rivulets forms that great
river the Soane, which, for the short course it
has to run, not being more than sixty miles from
its numerous sources in the hills before noticed,
presents an uncommon expanse, being generally
from three quarters of a mile to two miles in
breadth; but, in the dry season, contracting its
stream to a very narrow channel, winding in the
most fanciful meanders, and causing, by its
waters being so dispersed in a very flat bed, more
quicksands than probably are to be found in any
river in the world. It is worthy of remark here,
that several rivers in that part of the world, which
have sandy beds, appear suddenly to be lost;
owing to sand banks, that, during the stream’s
violence, have been thrown up, so high as to be
above the waters when the rains have subsided:
the current continues very perceptible, but as
the bar prevents the water from going forward,
it passes through the intervals of the very coarse
grit which forms that bar; and, perhaps, at the
distance of half a mile lower, re-appears. The
natives, who attribute every thing that can bear
the perversion to some invisible agent, never
fail to apply this as a curse upon any village that
may be opposite to such a bar, under the opinion
.bn 259.png
.pn +1
that the waters ceased to run in its vicinity on
account of some impiety, either known, or concealed,
perpetrated by the inhabitants.
The Gogra, or Dewah, which takes its rise
in the hills north of Gorackpore, dividing Napaul
from the Company’s possessions, rolls its impetuous
course through a country nearly desolate,
and bounding its banks with most extensive
forests and wildernesses. The soil is not so
impregnated with nitre as in other parts, nor are
the streams that form its volume tainted so
strongly with minerals. Perhaps owing to the
length of its course, which may be about 250
miles, or more, the more weighty particles may
be deposited; for it is held that this river contains
less obnoxious mixture than any part of
the Ganges. Of lime it may certainly partake,
since it runs through some tracts abounding with
kunkur; but its course is chiefly through clay,
sand, and a species of black potters’ marle, of
which crockery is made in some parts of north
Bahar, in imitation of our Staffordshire ware;
though very inferior as to form and finish. For
this, the neighbourhood of Sewan is famous.
The province of Bahar abounds in nitre; and
every petty rivulet either takes its rise from some
swamp strongly impregnated therewith, or passes
through soils which yield it profusely. Those
streams that originate in the Chittrah, Ramghur,
Gyah, and Monghyr Hills, are often so very
.bn 260.png
.pn +1
highly saturated with deleterious substances, as
to betray their bad qualities even to the eye.
The Mahana, the Mutwallah, and various
mountain rivers in that quarter, which rush into
the Ganges between Patna and Boglepore, are
frequently tinged with copper, of which some
small veins are to be found. An instance occurred,
while the 12th battalion of native infantry
was marching from Patna to the Ramghur
station, where the whole corps were so extremely
affected by the water, as scarcely to be able to
ascend from the camp, then at Dungaie, to the
summit of the Kanachitty Pass; such was the
state to which it had, by its cupreous solution,
reduced both men and beasts. Fortunately, it
was very cold weather, and the use made of the
waters had been very limitted.
Some officers from the same corps being on
a shooting party, during the next year, happened
to encamp at Dungaie. The kettle had been
put on; the water, indeed, was ready for breakfast;
but the gentlemen, on alighting from their
horses, as usual, had water brought them to
wash; when the contraction it occasioned in
their mouths instantly reminded them of their
former escape, and thereby set them on their
guard: on enquiring, they found, that, either
from want of memory, or through indolence,
their servants had taken the water from the rivulet
running at the foot of the pass, in lieu of
.bn 261.png
.pn +1
drawing it from a well in the town, which was
at no great distance.
Many such streams pour into the Ganges,
either singly, or in conjunction with others. As
to chalybeate influence, that cannot be wanting;
for the whole range of hills, in the elevated parts
of Ramghur, Rotas, Chittrah, Tomar, Pachete,
Beerboom, Ragonautpore, Midnapore, &c., may
be termed one mass of iron; lying in huge projections
exposed to view, and giving the soil a
strong rust color. The natives, in those parts,
fuse immense quantities for sale.
The country from Benares to Patna is generally
fertile in the extreme, abounding in rich
plains, and affording far purer water than is
to be found above that interval. At Gazypore
and Buxar the waters receive no additional
adulteration, except from the Caramnassa,
which certainly is an impure stream. Such
is the opinion held by the natives regarding
this river, that, on account of its being necessary
to cross it between Saseram and Benares,
a road much frequented by pilgrims and devotees;
particularly the immense hordes who repair
from the Maharrattah country, to visit the holy
Hindu city of Kassi, which is the name they
give to Benares; that a rich man, residing so far
off as Poonah, the capital of the Maharrattah
empire, near Bombay, bequeathed a large sum of
money for building a bridge, thereby to obviate
.bn 262.png
.pn +1
the necessity pious travellers were under of being
carried over on the backs of men; who gained a
livelihood by transporting those who, from over-nice
scruples, would not wade through the
stream, as they must have done through hundreds
of others, before they got so near their
holy object. Unhappily for those delicate gentry,
the bridge did not, when I last saw it, about
twelve years ago, seem likely to perform its
office: the soil being sandy, and the architect
understanding but little of his profession, piers
had repeatedly been raised to about seven or eight
feet high, but always gave way; so that I fear
the poor itinerants must still pay their pence, and
ride across as before; unless the edifice may be
entrusted to European architects.
The Coosah comes down from the Morungs, a
wild, mountainous country, replete with impenetrable
forests, and containing some few minerals:
however, on that head little is known; the
extent of the wilds being such as to debar the
possibility of exploring the supposed riches contained
in the bosom of the mountains. From
this quarter, and the continuance of the forest
before described, which stretches eastward to
Assam, and westward to Peelabeet, or further,
the whole of the lower countries are supplied
with saul and sissoo timbers, and some firs.
Such is the country in which the Coosah has
its rise; quitting which, after a foaming course
.bn 263.png
.pn +1
of about forty miles, it enters the extensive plains
of Purneah, through which it passes in a more
tranquil state, though ever rapid, until it joins
the Ganges a little below Colgong, which stands
on the opposite bank, and where the Termahony,
a small sluggish river of about eighty or a hundred
yards in breadth, blends its waters with the
great river. The Termahony is very deep, and,
in the rainy season, equally impetuous. Like
the Coosah, it flows chiefly through a flat country,
during its short course, and as the soils in
this part are sabulous, there does not appear
any thing remarkable in the effects of the waters
upon the inhabitants.
The Ganges may be considered as far more
pure between Raje-Mahal, in the Jungleterry
district, and Mauldah, or Bagwangolah, than
for some distance above; during the dry season,
it is remarkable for the clearness and lightness of
its waters: after leaving this to proceed southward,
we find them greatly changed during the
rainy season, when the immense inundation
which prevails throughout Bengal, properly so
called, and which, moving in general at a rate
not exceeding half a mile in the hour, may be
considered as stagnant.
We now lose the great body of sand that in all
the upper country forms the bed, not only of the
Ganges, but of every river whose course continues
uninterrupted during the dry season;
.bn 264.png
.pn +1
though its stream may become insignificant.
Here it should be remarked, that sandy beds
generally produce the finest beverage, and that
the water will be found more pure in proportion
as the sand is coarse. Hence, the waters
in the deep parts of such streams are invariably
the sweetest; for the coarse sand will naturally
find its way to the greatest depths, precipitating
the impurities with it. On the contrary,
the light floating sands, which with
every little motion become agitated, will set the
impurities also in action. Such are generally
found on the borders of the stream, whence
most persons derive their supplies, and where it
may usually be seen in an active state; or, if at
rest, blended with slime, or fibrous substances.
We should ever remember the distinction between
the effects of fine and of coarse sand as
strainers. Coarse sand allows heavy, or coarse
bodies, to pass through it freely, provided the
particles be not adhesive, or too gross for filtration:
consequently, when such sand is deposited
in the bed of a river, the lesser particles
of lime, or of minerals and their ores, will sink,
and remain fixed. Not so with fine sand;
which has a greater tendency to compactness,
and which, gradually filling up the smallest intervals,
becomes firm, and resists all admixture
with heterogeneous substances; the latter must,
of necessity, remain on their surface, subject to
.bn 265.png
.pn +1
be taken up with the water. Persons accustomed
to filtration must know, that, owing to
this tendency, fine sand is by far the best medium
to filter through, while coarse sand is preferable
for the purposes of precipitation.
The inundation which overflows Bengal,
especially in the districts of Nattore, Dacca,
Jessore, the southern parts of Rungpore, and a
part of Mahomed-Shi, is, perhaps, one of the
most curious of nature’s phenomena! The
wisdom of our Creator is most conspicuously
shewn in the appropriation of sustenance, both
for the human and for the brute species, suited
to meet this annual visitation of the waters.
However copious the rains may be in the
southern provinces, though they might become
boggy, and be partially inundated where the
lands were low, yet, without the influx of these
immense streams, which, owing to the declivity
of the surface, pour down from the upper country,
Bengal would, at such seasons, be but a
miry plain, or a shallow morass. The great
inundation does not, generally, take place till a
month after the period when the rains have,
according to the phrase in use, ‘set in.’ The
thirsty soils of Oude, Corch, Allahabad, Benares,
Gazypore, Patna, Rungpore, Boglepore,
Purneah, and all beyond the 25th degree of latitude,
require much moisture to saturate them,
as do also those parched plains into which they
.bn 266.png
.pn +1
ultimately pour their streams, before any part of
the soil can be covered, indeed, such is the state
of the southern provinces after the cold season,
that that rich friable soil in which they abound is
seen cake-dried and cracked by fissures of many
inches in breadth, as though some great convulsion
of nature had been exerted to rend the
surface into innumerable divisions.
Under the circumstances of a flood, which
lasts for many months, fluctuating from the
middle or end of July to the beginning of October,
(though the water does not drain off before
the middle of December in low situations,)
the inhabitants might be supposed to suffer
under all the miseries of a general ruin and subsequent
scarcity. The reverse is, however, the
fact; for, provided the rains do not fall in such
torrents as to wash away their habitations, and to
occasion so rapid a rise in the fluid plain as to
overwhelm the growing rice, the more ample
the bursauty, (i.e. the rains,) the more plentiful
the crop, and generally the less sickly does the
season prove. The latter point will appear self-established,
when we consider that amplitude of
inundation serves, not only to divide the septic
matter contained in the water, but likewise to
accelerate its action, and cause its proceeding
with added impetus to discharge itself into the
bay. At this season, rivers are only known by
the currents, and consequent swells, which appear
.bn 267.png
.pn +1
amidst this temporary ocean! The navigation,
for several months, assumes a new appearance.
Vessels of great burthen, perhaps of two
thousand maunds, (each 80lb.,) equal to nearly
one hundred tons, are seen traversing the country
in all directions, principally with the wind,
which is then within a few points on either side
of south. Noted cities, exalted mosques, and
populous gunjes, or grain-markets, on the river’s
bank, are not objects of attention. The boatman
having set his enormous square sail,
proceeds by guess, or, perhaps, guided by experience,
through the fields of rice, which
every where raise their tasseled heads, seeming
to invite the reaper to collect the precious grain.
As to depth of water, there is generally from ten
to thirty feet, in proportion as the country may
be more or less elevated.
It is curious to sail among these insulated
towns, which, at this season, appear almost level
with the surrounding element, and hemmed in
by their numerous dingies, or boats, which, exclusive
of the necessity for preparing against an
over-abundant inundation, are requisite for the
purposes of cutting the paddy: rice being so
called while in the husk.
So soon as what is considered the final secession
of the inundation is about to commence,
the whole of the boats are in motion,
and the paddy is cut with astonishing celerity.
.bn 268.png
.pn +1
It is fortunate, that, owing to the country on the
borders of the sea being higher than the inundated
country, the waters cannot draw off
faster than they can find vent, by means of the
rivers which discharge into the Bay of Bengal,
else the growing rice would be subjected to
various fluctuations unsuited to its nature, and
occasioning the straw to bend; whereby its
growth would be injured, even if it should
recover from its reclined state so as again to
assume a vigorous appearance on the surface.
The waters of the inundation, it will be seen,
are a mixture of all the streams flowing from
every part of the extensive valley formed
by the ranges of mountains stretching from
Chittagong to Loll Dong, or Hurdwar, on the
east and north-east, and from Midnapore to
Lahore on the west and north-west, a course of
not less than fifteen hundred miles, and
generally from two to four miles in breadth.
It may be supposed, that many impurities must
be involved with these contributary streams, as
particularized in the foregoing pages: to this we
must add the offensive, and certainly not salutary,
effect, induced by the Hindu custom of
consigning every corpse to the waters of the
Ganges, or of any stream flowing into it.
The Hindu religion requires that the deceased
should be burnt to ashes, on the borders
of the Ganges, and that those ashes, with all
.bn 269.png
.pn +1
the remnants of wood used in the pile,
should, together with the small truck bedstead
on which the body was brought from the habitation
to the river side, be wholly committed
to the stream. The wholesomeness of such
a practice, in a country where the strides
of putrefaction know no bounds, infection
and its effects being prodigiously extensive
and rapid, cannot be disputed; such an ordinance
may vie with the acts of any other
legislature, however enlightened. But, either
the poverty, the indolence, or the sordidness,
of the people, has, in time, converted this
wholesome precaution into a perfect nuisance.
From fifty to a hundred bodies, in different
stages of putrefaction, may be seen floating past
any one spot within the course of the day.
These having been placed on a scanty pile, and
that not suffered to do its office, either on
account of hot, cold, or wet, weather, have
been pushed, by means of a bamboo pole, into
the stream, to the great annoyance of water-travellers,
and of all persons abiding near those
eddies, where the nuisance may be kept
circling for days, until forcibly removed, or
until the pariah dogs swim in, and drag the
carcase to the shore: there it speedily becomes
the prey of various carrion birds, and of the
indigenous village curs known by the above
designation.
.bn 270.png
.pn +1
Under all the circumstances of such a combination
of putrid animal and vegetable substance,
of mineral adulteration, and of the
miasma naturally arising from the almost sudden
exposure of an immense residuum of slime,
&c.; added to the cessation of the pure sea air,
the wind changing after the rains from the
southerly to the northerly points, are we to
wonder at the malignancy of those fevers prevalent
throughout the province of Bengal Proper,
from the end of September to the early part of
January, when the swamps are generally
brought into narrow limits, and the air is laden
with noxious vapors?
Although it appears, that the general sickness
prevailing throughout Bengal at the above
season, is induced by nearly the same causes
that, according to our best informations, engender
the yellow fever in America, yet no
symptom of that alarming complaint has ever
been known in India, nor does the bilious, or
putrid fever, of Bengal at all assimilate in regard
to symptoms with the American fatality. Certainly
it is common to see whole villages in
a state of jaundice, and in some years the
ravages of the disease are truly formidable; but,
though it may be classed as epidemic, we may,
at the same time, annex an endemic distinction
in regard to each village separately. Except in
cases of putrid accession, or of obvious typhus,
.bn 271.png
.pn +1
there does not seem any danger of infection;
and it has been proved, that the malady might,
by proper care, be wholly averted. It is a fact,
that, at several civil stations, and at some
of the principal military cantonments, which
were formerly considered the emporium of fever,
the inhabitants have been preserved in an ordinary
state of health merely by cutting a few
drains, or by banking up such places as formerly
proved inlets to inundate plains that now remain
sufficiently free from water to allow of
pasturage during the whole of the rainy season.
The confinement occasioned by a long term of
rain, must necessarily alter the habit, while the
incumbent atmosphere, being laden with moisture,
must, at the same moment, dispose the
system to the reception, or to the generation, of
disease. The poor native does not change his
diet, and very probably retains the same damp
cloaths for many days. His temperate system
of living seems to be his greatest aid in case of
illness; those medicines that in him effect a
great change being found comparatively feeble
when administered either to one of a debauched
conduct, or to Europeans; who, being accustomed
to a more substantial and more stimulant
mode of living, are not to be acted upon but by
the more potent of the materia medica.
It has often been asked, as a matter of surprize,
how it happens that Bengal has never
.bn 272.png
.pn +1
been visited by the plague. The question has
been founded on the supposed affinity between
that country and Egypt, in regard to the annual
inundations; and to the narrowness, as well as
the filth, of the streets in the great cities; which
would, if the conjecture were correct, induce
pestilence, as the same causes are said to do in
Turkey.
The case is widely different. In Egypt,
although the lands are inundated, rain is
scarcely ever known to fall; the floods coming
from the southerly mountains. Hence, the inhabitants
are under all the disadvantages attendant
upon a hot atmosphere, during eight
months in the year, and are, for the remaining
four, exposed to the insalubrity arising from
the inundation, especially when it is draining
off.
In regard to the narrowness of the streets,
and the filth they contain, something may be
said in alleviation. The houses in Turkey are
much higher, are built of more solid materials,
and the inhabitants being wholly of one religion,
viz. followers of Mahomed, but partaking
of some of the bad habits of the neighbouring
countries, being also in a more variable climate,
more pointed attention is paid to durability and
to closeness in the edifices, than is commonly
shewn in India. In the latter country, the
utmost jealousy subsists between the Mussulmans
.bn 273.png
.pn +1
and the Hindus, but the latter are most
numerous in every place, even in the cities
where Mussulman princes hold their durbars, or
courts. This jealousy occasions the Hindus to
look upon every vestige of a Mussulman as
a contamination; and, as ablutions are enjoined
even more by the Hindu law than by the
Koran, which is the Mussulman’s book of faith,
we may consider the person of a Hindu to be as
clean and wholesome as repeated washings can
make it. He wears only a small lock of hair,
growing from a spot about the size of a dollar on
the crown of his head. His cloaths are washed
as often as his body, and, on the whole, it
should appear almost impossible for him to carry
any disease arising from, or communicated
through, a deficiency of individual cleanliness.
The houses of the natives throughout India,
if we except about one-third of Benares, about
a twentieth of Patna, the same of Moorshadabad,
and a mere trifle of the Black Town of Calcutta,
are built of mats, bamboos, and straw;
in the latter, they have been, under late regulations,
tiled. The generality of village-huts are
built with mud walls. On the whole, however,
whether owing to cracks in the walls, or intervals
between them and the thatches, windows,
&c., the air finds a free course throughout.
Add to this, that the natives do not sleep on
feather beds, flock, &c., but generally on mats
.bn 274.png
.pn +1
made of reeds. This, of itself, may be considered
a preventive against infection.
The fires kept up in the houses of the natives
of Turkey are in fixed stoves, or under chimnies,
which do not answer the purposes of fumigation.
Whereas, the Indian, by means of
a moveable stove, unintentionally fumigates
the whole house; making the eyes of all smart
with the smoke. This fuel is not bituminous;
but, in every situation, is either wood, or the
dried dung of cattle. Besides, the floor of a
Hindu’s house is, perhaps daily, washed with a
thick solution of cow-dung, whence a freshness
is diffused, not perhaps very gratifying, in point
of savour, to an European’s nostrils, but
assuredly anti-septic, and answering various
good purposes; especially as the walls are, to
the height of, perhaps, three or four feet,
smeared with the same mixture. The use of
tobacco is common to both Turkey and India,
and may be considered as contributary to a
resistance against the damps during the rainy
season, as well as against infection.
With regard to the apprehensions arising from
filth, fortunately, they are not better founded
than those just noticed as dependant on the narrowness
of the streets. This lucky evasion of
disease is not, however, to be attributed to any
attention on the part of the natives individually,
or to the fostering care of the native
.bn 275.png
.pn +1
governments. Few towns of any importance
but are built on the borders of some navigable
river, of which there are abundance throughout
the country. The swarms of vultures, kites,
crows, and of a large kind of butcher bird,
standing at least six feet high, called the argeelah,
added to the immense numbers of pariah
dogs, generally roving at liberty, and unacknowledged
by any particular owner; together with
the multitude of jackalls, that patrol through
the cities, as well as the plains, during the night,
all contribute to remove whatever carrion, or
putrescent matter, may be exposed to their
researches.
It would not, perhaps, be so easy to keep
cities in a state of tolerable cleanliness in such a
hot climate, if the inhabitants subsisted on
butchers’ meat. The shambles alone would
prove highly offensive: it is therefore fortunate
that the natives make rice and vegetables their
principal food. There being no privies attached
to houses in general, is an additional benefit;
though accompanied with some small inconvenience,
it being requisite to walk to the outskirts
of the city, or, eventually, among some
ruins, on all occasions. The privies of the
higher orders of natives, and of Europeans in
general, are built on a plan which admits of
instantly removing the filth; a practice never
neglected by a servant, whose office consists only
.bn 276.png
.pn +1
in that duty, and in sweeping the house at
various times of the day.
The argeelah, or butcher bird, before mentioned,
is to be seen partially all the year round;
but, generally speaking, comes with the first
showers in June, and stays until the cold season
is far advanced; when it retires into the heavy
covers on the borders of the large unfrequented
lakes, near the mountains, to breed. This bird
has been fully described in the representation of
the Ganges breaking its Banks, in my work
entitled the ‘Wild Sports of India,’ published
by Mr. Orme, of New Bond-street, and by
Messrs. Black, Parry, and Kingsbury, of Leadenhall-street.
It is by some called the bone-eater,
from its peculiarity of digestion; it having the
power of swallowing whole joints, such as a leg
of lamb, and of returning the bone after the meat
has been digested: when thus rejected, it appears
as clean as though it had been boiled for a whole
day. I cannot give a better idea of the fitness of this
bird to eat of the most putrid substances, than
by stating, that I have frequently rubbed an
ounce, or more, of emetic tartar into a piece of
meat, which an argeelah has swallowed, without
shewing symptoms of uneasiness on the occasion,
though very closely watched for hours after.
From this, it may be inferred, that ordinary stimulants
do not disagree with the stomach of this
unsightly, but innocent, and useful, animal.
.bn 277.png
.pn +1
Inland towns are usually built in the vicinity
of some large jeel, or lake, or on some ravine,
which, during the rains, forms a rapid water
course. Such as are near to hills, are often, for
many days together, impassable; owing to the
torrents which, through their means, find a way
either to some expanse, or to some navigable
river,
The jeel, or, for want of one, the tank nearest
to the town, usually becomes the receptacle of
every Hindu corpse, and, at the same time,
supplies the inhabitants with water for every
purpose. One would think this intolerable
practice were, of itself, sufficient to deter men,
who pretend to the utmost delicacy and purity
in all respects, from drinking at so contaminated
and corrupt a reservoir. What then shall we
say, when it is known that the borders of tanks
in such situations, become places of ease,
where men, women, and children, perform their
duties to the goddess in colloquial association;
and where, having got rid of their burthens, they
free themselves from its remains, by washing
with those very waters whence, probably,
another person is baling into his pot, or leather
bag, for culinary purposes, or for beverage.
Tanks and jeels are, in almost every part of
India, full of rushes, and of the conferva, which,
together with duck-weed, docks, &c., both
cover the surface and fill up the deeps. They
.bn 278.png
.pn +1
are, generally, replete with small fishes of various
descriptions, and if of any extent, or deep,
either harbour, or serve as visiting places for
alligators, which infest both the running and
the stagnant waters in every part of the country.
These voracious animals travel at night from one
jeel, or tank, to another; often announcing their
presence by snapping up some poor unsuspecting
Hindu, who wades up to his middle for the
purpose of performing his ablutions, and of
offering up the customary prayers on such
occasions.
In many tanks, alligators are known to exist
in numbers; nay, in some places, they are subsisted
by the eleemosynary donations of travellers,
who disburse a trifle in money, or present
some provision to a faqueer, (or mendicant
priest,) to provide food for the alligators, which
come forth from the waters, on hearing the well-known
voice of their holy purveyor; from whom
they seldom fail to receive each a small cake of
meal, or some other provision. This liberality
does not, however, occasion any qualmish
scruples of gratitude; it being found, that alligators
thus handsomely treated are not a whit
more reserved in the application of their teeth
to bathers, &c., than those which have never
been honored by such liberal consideration.
The respiration and effluvia proceeding from
an animal, perhaps twenty, or twenty-five, feet
.bn 279.png
.pn +1
in length, and from six to twelve in circumference,
must have an effect upon even a large
body of water. Allowing that such a monster
should consume as much air as ten men, which,
surely, is not an unfair calculation, and that
twenty gallons of water contain one of air; as
a man, on an average, consumes one gallon of air
in a minute, the alligator must consume twelve
hundred gallons, equal to near twenty hogsheads,
in an hour: in twenty-four hours, the quantity
of water contaminated by one alligator would
amount to four hundred and eighty hogsheads!
From this, we may conceive the effect produced
by the presence of, perhaps, seven or
eight alligators in a tank not exceeding two acres
in measurement, and no where above twelve or
fourteen feet in depth: we must likewise take
into the account abundance of fishes; for, if that
abundance did not exist, the alligators would
speedily decamp. Add to these two sufficient
drawbacks, all that has been said of the impurities
added by the inhabitants, and we shall
form such a nauseating and unwholesome combination
as must cause us to wonder how ever
one should be left to tell the fate of his lost
friends.
Amidst the mountains, where, of course, the
inundations cannot be of any duration, and
where the waters of every description are
limitted as to extent; the streams being very
.bn 280.png
.pn +1
small, and, excepting a few hollows between
two hills, or, eventually, a valley, in which a
pool may exist, alligators are to be seen. They
are generally small, but of a very savage
species, making up, by their rapacity and activity,
for the want of that bulk which renders
the alligator of the great rivers more apparently
dangerous. By the term ‘small,’ we must not
conclude them to be diminutive, but, that they
rarely exceed twelve or fourteen feet in length.
Such will, however, seize a bullock when
wading in a tank, or jeel; stealing upon him with
the utmost caution, so as not to disturb the
fluid, and even keeping the dorsal spines depressed
until the very moment of seizure;
when, fastening upon the unwary animal’s leg,
and throwing his whole weight backwards; at
the same time swinging round, so forcibly as to
raise the greater part of his disgusting frame
above the surface, the alligator, by one violent
effort, which appears almost instantaneous, ordinarily
succeeds in dragging the poor animal into
a sufficient depth. Pain, surprize, and the
unrelaxing bite of his devourer, combine to
disable him from making any adequate resistance;
being, besides, kept completely immersed
by the subtle and experienced assailant, no more
is seen, except that the waters appear for about
a minute violently agitated, by the efforts of
both parties: the alligator is, however, compelled
.bn 281.png
.pn +1
to raise his head above the surface when
in the act of deglutition. This is seen daily,
even when a fish becomes the victim. On
these occasions, the stupendous animal rears in
the waters, exposing sometimes so far as his
shoulders, and ordinarily biting the fish in two,
when, with the utmost ease, he swallows what
would make a hearty meal for thirty or forty
men of keen appetite. I have frequently seen
an alligator thus chuck down a rooee, or river carp,
weighing from fifty to sixty pounds: a size by
no means uncommon in the great rivers of
Bengal!
The great use made of water by the natives in
every part of India, occasions an immense number
of tanks and wells to be dug, chiefly by
persons of property, under the pretence of aiding
the poorer classes, but, in fact, with the
view to become popular, or of transmitting their
names to posterity by affixing them as designations
to the tank or well in question. This
takes place equally in regard to plantations,
generally of mango trees; and in the building of
seraies, for the accommodation of travellers, such
as Europeans generally understand to be caravan
seraies; but that term can only apply to those
parts of Arabia, &c., that furnish caravans;
which are not known in the great peninsula of
India; where, on account of the extent of
.bn 282.png
.pn +1
sea-coast, navigation absorbs the chief part of
the trade. Seraies are usually known by the
name, or title, of the founder. Thus, Maraud
ka Seray implies that the public accommodation
for the reception of travellers was founded by
Maraud; respecting whom the people in attendance
either have some traditional account,
or supply a famous history, invented for the
occasion.
Seraies are now going fast to decay; the power
of the native princes has been so much abridged,
and their influence is so little felt, that, generally
speaking, were a rich or exalted character to
found a seray, even on the most liberal footing,
it is probable his expectation of immortal fame
would not be realized. The rage is now more
bent towards gunges, or grain markets; hauts, or
villages, holding periodical markets; maylahs, or
annual fairs; and, in fact, to such establishments
as afford a profit, or which, from becoming notorious
in the way of trade, are more likely to perpetuate
the celebrity of the institution.
Durgaws, (commonly called mosques,) appertain
exclusively to those of the Mahomedan
faith, and mhuts, which are, properly, places of
Hindu worship, also madressahs, or colleges,
with endowments for faqueers, or Hindu priests,
seem to hold their ground. These, like the
abbeys of Monkish times, are ever to be found
.bn 283.png
.pn +1
in the most beautiful and most eligible situations:
above all things having a command of excellent
water.
The tanks in the hills, that is to say, such as
have resulted from artificial means, are generally
small, full of weeds, and rarely lined with masonry;
their banks are soft, and the waters,
being accessible to cattle on every side, foul and
turbid. Sometimes these become nearly dry
during the hot months, affording, if any, a most
offensive and insalubrious beverage. Nevertheless,
the indolent native will often drink thereof,
rather than send half a mile to a purer spring.
The generality of these tanks have originally a
regular supply from numberless springs, fed
either by a natural syphonic process from higher
lands, or by percolation of the profuse dews
that, throughout the immense jungles on the
higher soils, fall during the hottest months; but
the want of proper attention to preserve the
tanks from the incursions of cattle, which, being
very wild in their nature, often swim or wade
over to the opposite sides, quickly choak the
springs, which, in such open soils, easily find
other vents, and expose the inhabitants to great
suffering from drought. In many instances we
see wells dug in the tanks; thereby causing a
great saving of labor; as, when once a spring discharges
into the tank, in such a situation, it is
not necessary to dig the whole area to an equal
.bn 284.png
.pn +1
depth. This is a cheap expedient, adopted by
such as have vanity enough to attract public
notice, but not money enough to do the thing
completely, or to a great extent.
From these causes, we are led to the consideration
of those effects produced in hilly countries,
by the waters in common use. Nor are
we deceived in our expectation as to the results
naturally arising from so forcible an agent. We
find throughout the hilly country, that, exclusive
of the diminutive features attached, all over
the world, to the various classes of mountaineers,
there is an additional tendency to
departure from the ordinary bulk of the natives
in the adjacent low lands, obviously induced by
the diet, and most especially by the waters in
use. It is remarkable that in Tomar, the back
part of Chittrah, and Ramghur, where the
immense extent of low woods almost debars
population, and where the Hill people, known
by the name of Dhangahs, subsist principally
on rice, wild fruits, and, occasionally, a little
game, and where they drink of water such as
has just been described, collected either in
small pools, or in artificial tanks, the inhabitants
are extremely stinted in their growth, are
squalid, troubled with wens, half devoured
with a kind of scurvy, herpetic eruption, and
appear even at a very early age to lose their vigor.
They have, besides, a peculiar kind of opthalmia,
.bn 285.png
.pn +1
partly induced by an excessive passion for
liquor, there distilled in large quantities, and
by their exposure to a damp, impregnated
atmosphere; while in their huts, their whole
happiness seems to consist of an intense fumigation,
chiefly from green-wood, such as would
wholly suffocate one not habituated from his
birth to so admirable an imitation of the fumes of
Tartarus.
The difference between these haggard objects,
and the inhabitants of the plains from which
the mountains take their rise, requires no comment.
It most forcibly arrests the traveller’s
attention, causing him to doubt whether, within
the short interval of perhaps six or seven
miles, he may believe his senses, which pourtray
to him a change from vigorous and personable
manhood, to a decrepid, hideous, and
dwarfish, state: more resemblant of the Weird
Sisters than our imaginations can conceive, or
than our best comedians can represent.
Some tanks, dug by the more charitable persons
of property, are on a very extensive scale,
covering perhaps ten or twelve acres. Many
of these are of great antiquity, and have been
very deep, perhaps thirty feet, but, by the growth
of vegetable matter, added to the heavy bodies
of sand and dust that nearly darken the air in
the dry season, of which much falls into the
waters, their depth is considerably reduced:
.bn 286.png
.pn +1
in some, various shoals appear, indicating the
accumulation of rubbish, and in a manner reproaching
those who use the element with indolence
and ingratitude. In such places fish
abound, and grow to an astonishing size, sometimes
affording excellent angling, but their
flavor does not correspond with their looks; for
the most part they are intolerably muddy. The
quantity of weeds, the shoals, and various posts
being generally sunk in different parts of the
tank, armed with tenter-hooks, for the purpose
of preventing poachers from robbing the stock,
are insuperable bars to the use of nets. Boats
are not in use in such places, and there seems
to be no attention in any respect to any thing
relating to such waters, except that the shecarries,
or native sportsmen, exercise much ingenuity
and skill in their depredations among the wild
geese, wild ducks, teal, widgeons, &c., with
which all the waters of India are profusely
stocked during the winter months; when every
unfrequented puddle is covered with wild fowl,
which often alight during the dark nights on
waters situated in the very hearts of cities, in
which sometimes tanks are seen of such size, as
to secure the birds, when collected near the
centre, from the reach of small shot. This,
though not to be classed with daily occurrences,
is by no means singular.
By far the greater number of tanks, especially
.bn 287.png
.pn +1
those by the road-side, or contiguous to cities
and populous towns, are walled in with masonry.
In such case, they have at one, or more sides,
either a long slope, or a flight of steps of excellent
masonry; some, indeed, have both, the former
being intended for the use of cattle, which
are either suffered to drink there, or are employed
to carry large leather bags of water for the use of
the inhabitants. Owing to the great force of the
periodical rains, and to the swelling of the soil
during the season of excessive moisture, the masonry
is generally burst in various places, and for
the most part either sinks, or is prostrated into
the tank. As no credit would follow the repairs
of such breaches, they are left to their fate.
A due attention to the proper proportion of
base, so as to give a substantial talus both within
and without the walls, added to the precaution
of leaving vents for the free discharge of the
springs, or the super-abundant fluid, into the
tank, would most assuredly counteract so destructive
a weakness as now generally exists. I
cannot call to mind, at this time, any very old
masonry that has not succombed thereto, excepting
the great bund, or dyke, at Juanpore;
which, according to tradition, was built about
fifteen hundred years ago, and having been made
of a very obdurate kind of kunkur, found in those
parts, blended with excellent lime, probably
burnt from the same stones, appears now a complete
.bn 288.png
.pn +1
mass of rock, capable of resisting the ravages
of all time to come. This bund, which
bears all the venerable marks of antiquity, was
originally thrown up to limit the Goomty; a
fine river that rises in the Peelabeet country, and,
washing Lucknow, the capital of Oude, passes
through the city of Juanpore under a very lofty
bridge, built on strong piers, terminating in gothic
arches. The want of due breadth in the
arches occasions the waters to rise during the
rainy season to an immense height, creating a
fall of which that at London Bridge, at its worst,
is indeed but a poor epitome! The distance
between the top of the bridge and the water
below it, in the dry season, is something less
than sixty feet; yet it is on record, and in the
memory of many inhabitants of Juanpore, that
the river has been so full as to run over the
bridge, which is flat from one end to the other,
lying level between two high banks, distant
about three hundred and twenty yards.
Formerly, when the waters were high, they
used, according to the tradition alluded to, to
over-run the country on the left bank; forming
an immense inundation throughout the country
lying east of Juanpore, and extending down towards
the fertile plains of Gazypore. The hollow,
or low land, by which they penetrated, was
about two miles in width; therefore the bund
was built to a suitable extent: it is now about
.bn 289.png
.pn +1
two miles and a half long; in most parts, about
thirty feet broad at the top, and double that
width at the base. Its height varies from ten to
twenty feet. The record states it to have proved
effectual in resisting the inundation, which, however,
on account of the bund being at right angles
with the river, so as to occupy a favorable position,
and cut off the torrent, continued to flow
annually as far as its base. In time, the sediment
deposited by the water thus rendered stagnant,
filled up the hollow, raising its surface as
high as the other parts of the river’s boundary,
and creating a soil peculiarly valuable, now
chiefly occupied by indigo planters. The insalubrity
occasioned by the many swamps left by
the inundation, was at the same time averted,
and the dread entertained that the Goomty
would, in time, force a new channel for the
entire body of its stream, removed. Large
tracts, before of little value, acquired a deep
staple of soil, which, at this date, yields sugar,
indigo, wheat, barley, &c., in abundance and
perfection.
The rage for digging tanks, has, I apprehend,
in a certain measure, subsided; for we find little
of that very absurd ostentation now prevalent,
which must have actuated to such immense
works, rendered useless by their too great number,
or carried to an excess in regard to their
measurement. It would be, perhaps, difficult
.bn 290.png
.pn +1
to ascribe to any other motive than that of unparalleled
vanity, why a man should have dug
near seventy tanks, all nearly contiguous, on a
plain not many miles distant from the military
station of Burragong, in the district of Sircar
Sarung, situate between the Gunduc and the
Gogra. The population did not require more
than one tank; especially as a stream of tolerably
good water passes within a few hundred
yards of the site of these offsprings of ostentation.
The inhabitants tell various stories as to
the person who lavished his money in this empty
manner; and, (which would, no doubt, vex the
real prodigal to his very heart,) the modern narrators
differ widely even as to the name and rank
of the individual!
With respect to seraies, we may, at least,
praise the convenience they afford, without bestowing
much admiration on the charity of
their founders. Some of these are very extensive,
covering, perhaps, six or eight acres. They
generally consist of a quadrangle, built across
the road, which passes under two lofty arched
gateways, having battlements, or turrets, over
them. The gates open to an extent sufficient to
allow any laden elephant, however stupendous,
to pass freely. They are made of strong wood,
well bound with iron, and studded with iron
spikes, of which the points are on the outside;
for the purpose of preventing elephants from
.bn 291.png
.pn +1
forcing them by pressure. The surrounding walls
of the quadrangle are generally about fourteen
feet in height, and from two to four in thickness,
according either to the antiquity of the building,
or to the parsimony of the builder. They are
lined all around with a shed, built on pillars,
and divided by mats, &c., into various apartments,
all sheltered from the sun and rain by
means of doors, &c., of bamboos, mats, grass,
&c., as the country may afford; or, eventually,
a part is built up with thin brick, or with
mud.
In the central parts of the seray there are generally
some shops, ranged on each side of the
road, and one building appropriated to the cutwal,
or superintendant of the place; whose
office is, properly, to regulate all matters, and
to see that travellers are duty accommodated;
that the bytearahs, or cooks, dress their victuals,
and that the chokey-dars take due charge of the
goods consigned to their care. All this, however,
is done in a slovenly way; the greatest
impositions are often practised; and the itinerant
journies on from one scene of thievish combination
to another.
Although a seray may be built near to a river,
or to some sufficient stream, yet there is invariably
a well, ordinarily lined with circular tiles,
or masonry, in the area. The water is drawn
from such wells, for the most part, by means of
.bn 292.png
.pn +1
a truck-pulley, suspended between the limbs of
a forked bough cut for the purpose, and having
a wooden pin through it as an axle. Each person
draws his own water, and for that purpose
carries a line, generally about twenty feet long.
Few indeed travel, even on foot, without a
lootah, or brass water-vessel; of which there are
various sizes, from a pint, to half a gallon; a
tully, or flat brass plate, with a border about
an inch high, nearly perpendicular; and a cuttorah,
or metal cup. Some even carry their
daikçhees, or metal boilers; though, in general,
they purchase for a farthing, or, at the utmost,
for a halfpenny, a new earthen pot, capable of
holding perhaps three quarts, or a gallon, with
a lid of the same, in which, if they do not
intend to employ the people of the seray, they
dress their own victuals; leaving the crockery,
which no one else will use, it being considered
as polluted.
The water of wells in the seraies, or in populous
towns, is certainly far fresher and better than
is to be had, in general, from small rivers. But
much will depend on the soil, the lining of the
well, its depth, and, indeed, on its width. A
quick draught necessarily insures a plentiful flow,
and prevents corruption from any impurity that
may casually fall in from above. At a certain
depth there is usually found a stratum of sand;
this is remarkably fine, and, in some places, retains
.bn 293.png
.pn +1
such a large portion of fluid as to become
a perfect quicksand. In many parts, and especially
in the Ramghur district, which, on an
average, may be a thousand feet or more above
the level country, this sub-stratum presents a
most serious difficulty in the sinking of wells.
Of this I experienced two instances in my own
practice, which gave me much trouble. Having
to sink a well in the corner of a garden, and
wishing to avoid the expence and delay attendant
on masonry, I cut a square shaft, and went on
admirably until I came to a tremulous body of
sand. Never having met with a quicksand at
such a depth, then about twenty-four feet from
the surface, and on so elevated a table land, there
being no hills nearer than two miles, and those
being separated by deep vallies, in which were
running streams, I was somewhat disconcerted.
I felt the whole of the difficulty, but necessity
urged me to proceed. The well was to be lined
with logs of about seven feet long, and about
eight inches diameter; they were notched at
each end, so that two, being placed parallel at
five feet distance, and two others being laid over
their ends, the four made a quadrangle, which,
by means of the notches, came nearly to a level,
and locked very firmly into each other. Having
prepared abundance of these logs, I commenced
my operations, by affixing a pulley over the well
for the purpose of lowering them down to a
.bn 294.png
.pn +1
laborer who stood on a board slung from four
stakes at the brink of the shaft; for he could not
stand on the sand, which, when the surface was
broken, instantly became loose and liquid. The
four first logs were scarcely placed before their
own weight began to sink them, scarcely allowing
time to put on four others before they disappeared.
I perceived my error, and immediately had
the other logs all wrapped round with straw-rope
of about an inch in diameter; whereby they became
more buoyant, and resisted the liquescence
of the sand more powerfully, by their encrease
of diameter. As a foundation, I pinned the four
first, forming the primary layer, strongly at their
several corners; so that they made a fixed frame.
The work now went on merrily, but it was with
the utmost difficulty I could supply the logs fast
enough, the sand removed by their admission
rose so very rapidly. Being determined to overcome
the difficulty, I let down full twenty rounds
of logs, equal to about seventeen feet, when I
had the pleasure to see no more would sink: the
sand was excavated, and I found, that, although
in one or two places intervals of two or three
inches had taken place, yet, on the whole, I was
able to boast of better success than I expected.
By degrees, I got the logs settled in their places,
(a work of serious labor,) and always had water
enough for every culinary purpose, but not for
a large garden, which required ample irrigation
.bn 295.png
.pn +1
daily during the hot season; further, a quantity
was indispensably requisite for wetting the tatties,
or frames applied during that season to the
doors and windows, to keep my house cool.
My well appeared full of water up to the top
of the quicksand, but it was a perfect deception:
the sand filled up the shaft in the course of three
or four days, though emptied to the very bottom,
which was a hard red clay.
Finding that more expence was incurred by
the perpetual necessity for sending men down to
empty out the sand, I resolved to adopt the old
custom of lining the well with masonry; and
having got all clear to the bed of clay, into
which I sunk a stout frame, near a foot and a
half deep, I went on with spirit for a whole day,
in which near two yards of wall were built up:
but, during the night, the balers went to sleep,
and I found the whole immersed in the morning.
As the sand and water were emptied, the draft
was so great as to wash the lime from between
the bricks, and I was compelled to take all out
again. It then occurred to me to have bricks
made in the form of the frustum of a pyramid,
so as to fit exactly in a circle of two feet and a
half in diameter internally, and of four feet
externally. These were laid on the frame, which
I now buried a full yard in the clay: between
the bricks I put abundance of dry lime, rubbing
them close together, and, with the clay, all the
.bn 296.png
.pn +1
interval between the masonry and the wooden
frame was filled up. Two workmen were employed
all night; one in the well, who ladled
the water from the four corners into a bucket,
which the other raised to the surface: none
worthy of notice got within the circular masonry,
and I had the satisfaction, in about a week, to see
the whole completed. Sufficient water found
its way through the crevices, to keep me supplied,
and the sand gave so little trouble, that,
during a whole year that I occupied the premises,
no clearance was necessary.
This digression may appear irrelevant to the
subject; but I could not forbear giving the fact
a place here, as it possibly may prove an useful
guide to others who may be under similar disadvantages.
It is curious, that a very large well,
of about twelve feet diameter, was commenced
at the same time by a brother officer, within a
hundred yards of mine, which went on admirably,
and was finished in a very short time.
He had no quicksand opposed to his labors; on
the contrary, his great difficulty lay in cutting
through two strata of rock, from which only a
few dribblets appeared while the well was lining
with masonry; but, so soon as the rainy season
set in, those rocks prevented the descent of the
moisture, which, being by them directed to the
well, rushed in such a violent manner against
the masonry, as to force out many stones:
.bn 297.png
.pn +1
creating a fissure which, in a few weeks, proved
fatal to the whole of the work. A handsome
well, with a rich spring issuing from a gravelly
bottom, was thus ruined, and the station was
again subjected to much inconvenience for what
we often had in too liberal abundance.
The natives throughout India have a great
respect for such persons as plant mango topes (or
woods). These are, in general, managed with
great care, the trees being set at regular distances
each way, forming parallel vistas both lengthwise
and breadthwise: the width of which are
equal each way, and varying from twenty to
forty feet. When first planted, they are well
enclosed with a ditch and bank, sufficient to
prevent cattle from doing mischief to the young
trees, which are also watered at intervals during
the dry season, generally through the means of
a well, dug at the expence of the planter on one
side of the tope. If the proprietor be rich, the
well is usually large, lined with masonry, and
furnished with cisterns of the same, or of hewn
stone, so that cattle may be refreshed in
numbers; two pillars of masonry, or of substantial
wood, are erected; each supporting the
end of a timber, stretching across the well at
about five feet above the brink. On this timber,
a shieve of wood is fixed, with one or more
grooves for the reception of the cord used in
drawing water.
.bn 298.png
.pn +1
The first-fruits of plantations are, with few
exceptions, considered as appertaining to the
tutelary deity of the planter, and are tendered
to him as offerings on the part of the tope. The
priests who officiate on these august occasions,
commonly find means to save the sacred character
of their invisible patron from any suspicion
of gluttony, by taking upon themselves the
troublesome office of proxy, on this and every
occasion wherein mastication is needful.
On many of the great roads, such as that
leading from Benares to the upper stations, we
find very large wells, conveniently situated near
some shelter, though, perhaps, distant from any
town: occasionally, a hut or two may be erected
in the vicinity, for the residence of a bunneah, (or
kind of chandler,) or for a vender of spirits.
Some of these wells are furnished with various
sets of pillars and shieves, very substantial in
their construction; so as to bear the weight of a
leather bag, formed by stitching the edges of a
whole hide, trimmed of its superfluous angles,
&c., to an iron hoop of about a foot and a half
in diameter: by means of two arched irons,
rivetted at their crossing in the middle by a
swivel and loop, the bag, or moot, is managed in
the same way as a bucket in Europe. Many
of these moots are capable of containing, at
least, half a hogshead. They retain the water
more steadily in ascending, than any vessel
.bn 299.png
.pn +1
whose sides are fixed and firm; and, as they are
drawn into a cistern, or over a bed made hollow
for their reception, above the brink of the well,
no great exertion is required in emptying them;
the waters discharging voluntarily when the
moot is suffered, by the slackening of the rope,
to touch the bottom of the bed, or cistern.
It may reasonably be inferred, that such a
weight of water as may be contained in an ordinary
ox or cow hide, though of small growth,
must be more than manual strength could well
manage; especially as the pulley is extremely
small, rarely more than six or seven inches in
diameter, nearly as much in width, and moving
on a rude piece of wood for an axis; of which,
probably, nearly half has been lost by the excessive
friction so unfinished, and ill proportioned,
a piece of machinery must occasion. Not one
in a thousand ever is lubricated, but the hole in
the shieve is generally adequate to the admission
of an axis treble the size of that in use;
whence the pulley must jump from one inequality
to another; creating, at every such
transition, a check of some consequence to that
power whence it derives its motion.
To draw water by means of the moot, two
men and a pair oxen are requisite: the size of
the moot being proportioned to the bulk of the
cattle, which are yoked in the ordinary manner,
drawing by means of the rope fastened round
.bn 300.png
.pn +1
the centre of the yoke, and passing between
them. The strength of the oxen is aided very
considerably, by the path they follow being on a
declivity; so that, in proceeding from the well,
as they draw up the moot, they descend a talus,
or slope, of which the angle may vary from
fifteen to twenty-five degrees: the driver frequently
seats himself on the yoke, to encrease
the weight acting in opposition to the moot.
The quantity of earth derived from the shaft
of the well, rarely suffices to give the talus
sufficient slope, therefore, one half the length of
the bullock’s track (which is regulated by the
length of the rope, and may usually measure
about twenty-five yards) is sunk in the ground,
and the height near the well raised with the
proceeds of the excavation. This ensures a
sufficient addition to the energies of the cattle
in descending: which they do with great effect,
when goaded by the driver. Arriving at the
bottom of the slope, or when the moot is raised
above the surface of the well, the cattle stop,
and the man in attendance at the brink draws
the moot over the bed, or cistern, which is made
to project over about one-third of the well.
Some of the wells seen at the sides of the
great roads, measure fifteen or sixteen feet in
diameter, and have slopes cut out of the soil,
lined on each side with masonry, that lead to an
opening in the well’s circumference, near to the
.bn 301.png
.pn +1
ordinary level of the water; which, in the dry
season, is generally within very narrow limits.
Near the opening, we sometimes see an iron
ladle fastened by means of a chain. This convenience
is, for the most part, held sacred, and
he would, in those parts, be considered a consummate
villain, that would pilfer one from its
place of security. But, from many obvious marks
of violence, we must suppose that there are men
so depraved as to steal these chains and ladles,
when necessity may press them to take advantage
of a fair opportunity.
We should naturally conclude, that wells
founded on such a principle, in a climate where
excessive heats prevail for three months, at
least, would be invaluable. But they really are
little used; their surfaces are, in general, covered
with duck-weed, and they rarely are deficient
of an ample colony of frogs. Where huts are
built near them, their waters being rather less
stagnant, are, of course, more wholesome, as
well as more palatable: the encampment of a
regiment in their neighbourhood soon sweetens
them.
Some are rendered foul by their containing
fish. It would be difficult to account for fish
being there, unless they fall with the heavy
showers attendant upon those violent squalls
called north-westers, during the hot season,
when multitudes of small fry have been occasionally
.bn 302.png
.pn +1
found, even on the tops of houses, in
various parts of the country. Some assert that
many have been found alive: I have seen some
lying dead; once, in particular, near Allahabad,
after a very heavy shower of rain. It does not
appear possible, that, even if sucked up by a
water-spout, and immediately returned with the
rain, they could survive the rapidity of the
ascent, and the force with which they fall.
It is remarkable, that only three kinds of fish
are ever seen in wells; viz. the solee, which, in a
great measure, resembles our pike, and is equally
ravenous; the gurrye, or mud-fish, very similar
in form to our miller’s thumb; and the singnee,
or bayonet-fish, so called from its having three
terrible spines in its dorsal and lateral fins, the
wounds made by which are, generally, very
severe. This fish has a purplish skin, without
scales, is thin like a substantial pork knife, and
has a broad flat head. Like the gurrye, it is
found only among mud and slime, wherein it
works very nimbly. Both species can live a
long while in moist mud; as is proved by their
being found in recent puddles, where water had
formerly been dried up. It is remarkable, that
both the gurrye and the singnee are very sweet
eating, and are never muddy; the latter in particular.
If we except those small streams that come
down from mountains containing ores, which
.bn 303.png
.pn +1
must, of course, impregnate the waters in
those parts, the catalogue of mineral springs, as
yet discovered in Bengal, and the subordinate
stations under that presidency, will be found
very confined indeed. Possibly, numbers may
exist that are not generally known; and this I
am the more apt to believe, from having myself
discovered one within a few yards of the road
on the west bank of the Mahana, a small river
which rises among the hills near the Catcumsandy-pass
in the Ramghur district. The river
being much swelled by heavy rains, I was compelled
to wait until it subsided sufficiently to
admit of my being conveyed over on a raft
made of pots.
The mineral water above mentioned would,
very probably, have escaped my notice, had I
not been attracted by a nauseous smell, and the
black greasy appearance of the soil whence it
issued. The flavor was soapy, but strongly
sulphuric; and a slight scum, which appeared to
rise with the spring, was peculiarly acrid. I do
not believe it was ever analyzed, but should
conjecture it to have proceeded from a bed composed
of sulphur and bitumen; especially as
coals are found within that district.
There is a very remarkable hot-spring at a
place call Seetah-Coon, within three miles of the
fort of Monghyr. This, it appears, has been
known for ages, it is about twelve or fourteen
.bn 304.png
.pn +1
feet square, and may be from seven to eight feet
deep in the middle: that, however, must be
taken as a computation; the sides being of
masonry, shelving in greatly, and the bottom
not remarkably clear of weeds, &c. The water
is very hot: it was with great difficulty I
could keep my finger immersed during the time
I counted one hundred and five; and that, too,
rather hastily, it being for a wager. My finger,
far from being the better for my curiosity, was
slightly blistered. I have seen an egg moderately
poached at this spring, and have heard that
one was boiled in it; but, I apprehend, not to
any degree of firmness.
The most complete proof that a large portion
of caloric is contained in this spring, may be collected
from the melancholy fact, of an artillery
soldier, who, in the year 1777, attempting to
swim across, was scalded in such a manner as to
expire shortly after being taken out.
The natives, who judge by appearances, and,
probably, are guided in this particular from the
encreased quantity of vapour that appears
during the winter to rise from the spring,
affirm, that the water is then considerably
hotter than at any other season. The fallacy of
such an opinion is easily detected, and has,
indeed, been proved: several gentlemen have
been at the trouble of keeping a register of its
daily variations, which were found to be extremely
.bn 305.png
.pn +1
small. I could not assert myself to
be correct in stating its average degree of heat,
having mislaid my memoranda on that head;
but, to the best of my memory, the temperature
lay between 140° and 160° of Fahrenheit.
This well, of which the waters are considered
remarkably wholesome, stands on the borders
of a small plantation of (I believe mango) trees;
near to three or four other wells, of which the
waters are cold, and have not any distinguishing
quality. The redundant water from the hot
well affords a stream, whose section may be
equal to thirty square inches; it passes into a
large marsh, of at least twenty acres, close to the
plantation, where it nourishes a great variety of
aquatic plants, that appear to grow with more
than ordinary vigor.
The same negligence in regard to botany and
natural history, which appears to operate
throughout India, (if we except the labours
of a few zealous individuals, among whom,
Captain T. Hardwicke, of the Bengal Artillery;
Dr. Roxburgh, Superintendant of the Botanic
Garden at Calcutta; Dr. Bruce, formerly Physician
to the Nabob of Oude; and Dr. William
Hunter, of the Bengal Medical Department;
are the most conspicuous,) seems to operate
against enquiry into various important matters
relating to the mineral waters; which, I doubt
not, would be found in abundance, were either
.bn 306.png
.pn +1
the cost of research so moderate as to permit
active individuals to explore the vast regions
whose very boundaries are, as yet, scarcely
known; or, were the Government of India to
defray the expence of a few capable men,
whose time should be wholly devoted to an enquiry
into whatever might appertain to botany,
mineralogy, natural history, and the various
branches of knowledge on which chemistry and
physic depend. The disbursement could not
be felt; while, not only would the world at
large be benefitted, but, possibly, some new
articles of trade, or for manufacture, might be
discovered; whereby even the Company itself
would derive those solid advantages to which,
on most occasions, they direct the attention of
their servants.
Such has been the negligence shewn in
regard to the hot well at Monghyr, that,
although it stands within two miles of the
Ganges, is not more than three miles from the
Fort of Monghyr, (a grand depôt for stores,
garrisoned by upwards of two thousand invalids,)
and is in the direct track from Calcutta to the
upper provinces; nay, although the waters of
this well are sent for from all parts of the
country, and form, frequently, a part of the
stock of persons, especially ladies, going to sea;
for which purpose it is bottled in very large
quantities; yet, strange to tell, its properties
.bn 307.png
.pn +1
have never been duly analyzed. I have been in
company with various medical men, who differed
as to its basis; some asserting it to be
chalybeate, others considering it as impregnated
with soda, while some, I know not why, declared
it to possess no particular impregnation,
nor any active principle.
It must be evident, that, in a country whose
soil is subject to be parched during so many
months in the year, heavy fogs and miasma
must abound; consequently, during the four
months following the cessation of the annual
rains, it frequently happens that the atmosphere
is laden with mists and vapors until a very late
hour in the day. In great cities, the bad effects
of these are not so perceptible, on account of
the general fumigation which takes place during
the evenings, when the bulk of the inhabitants,
as if by general consent, kindle fires for the
purpose of cooking their victuals; of which
they rarely eat at an earlier hour than six or
seven o’clock; the cold remains of the repast
being put by for the morning’s meal. This fortuitous
circumstance tends to purify the air, and
obviates a large portion of those evils to which
the villages, which stand more exposed in the
midst of the marshy tracts, are imminently
subject. In such, it is common to find a very
large portion of the inhabitants annually laid up
.bn 308.png
.pn +1
with intermittents of a very obstinate description,
but from which they are rescued by their
moderation in regard to diet, and by a few
medicinal simples every where common, and
whose application is sufficiently understood.
Great numbers are, however, swept off by the
disease itself, or by the obstructions it generally
creates. Those obstructions are ever to be
dreaded, even though a perfect cure should
apparently have taken place. It is by no means
uncommon to see persons, especially Europeans,
who have, to appearance, been cured of Jungle,
or Hill-fevers, as they are locally designated, and
which correspond exactly with our Marsh-fever,
laid up at either the full or change of the moon,
or, possibly, at both, for years after.
Many have affected to doubt the planetary
influence on the human constitution, but, to
me, there appears every reason to accredit the
opinion. I have seen so many instances, among
my own most intimate friends, as well as a
thousand ordinary cases among soldiers, camp-followers,
villagers, &c., that my mind was fully
made up on the subject long before I had the
opportunity of perusing the treatise of Dr.
Francis Balfour, of the Bengal Medical Establishment;
from which I offer to the consideration
of my readers the following interesting
extracts.
.bn 309.png
.pn +1
.ce
OF THE PAROXYSMS OF FEVERS.
‘In Bengal, there is no reason to doubt that
the human frame is affected by the influence
connected with the relative situations of the sun
and moon. In certain states of health and
vigor, this influence has not power to shew itself
by any obvious effects; and, in such cases, its
existence is often not acknowledged. But, in
certain states of debility and disease, it is able to
manifest itself by exciting febrile paroxysms;
and the propensity, or aptitude, of the constitution
to be affected with febrile paroxysms in
such cases, may be denominated the paroxysmal
disposition.’
.ce
OF PERFECT TYPES.
‘Febrile paroxysms universally discover a
tendency to appear, and to disappear, in coincidence
with those positions of the sun and moon
that regulate the rising and falling of the tides.
The diurnal and nocturnal encrease of sol-lunar
power acting on constitutions, in which the propensity
of the paroxysmal disposition is complete
and perfect, produces paroxysms every
twelve hours, in coincidence with the periods of
the tides; and constitute types which, on account
of this regular coincide, I denominate
perfect.’
.ce
OF IMPERFECT TYPES.
‘The diurnal and nocturnal encrease of sol-lunar
power acting on constitutions in which
.bn 310.png
.pn +1
the propensity to paroxysm is incomplete, or
imperfect, has power only to produce paroxysms
in coincidence with every second, third, or
fourth, period of the tides, or others, more remote;
constituting types, which, on account of
this irregular coincidence, I have called imperfect.’
Doctor Balfour states, in a note, that, ‘In
several cases of the plague, recorded by Dr.
Patrick Russell, the febrile paroxysms returned
obviously every four hours, in coincidence with
the periods of the tides; and his predecessor
and relation, the author of ’The Natural History
of Aleppo,‘ asserts positively, that the generality
of the fevers there, and, indeed, in almost all
acute cases, are subject to exacerbations once or
twice in twenty-four hours.’
In Cordiner’s Description of Ceylon, I find
the following passage:—‘Medical men have
discovered this swelling’ (viz. the elephantiasis)
‘to be an effect of fever, which returns on the
patients monthly.’ (Vol. I. page 182.)
The natives, generally in the first instance,
have recourse to the bit-noben or kala-neemuk,
(i.e. black-salt,) a solution of which, though
certainly very disgusting, on account of its taste,
strongly reminding us of the scent of gun washings,
or of rotten eggs, proves an excellent
cathartic, and, if duly persisted in, rarely fails
to rid the patient of an immense quantity of
.bn 311.png
.pn +1
bile. That being effected, a strong decoction of
cherrettah, a root about the size of slender birch
twigs, but of a redder color, and possessing
some of the properties of Peruvian bark, is frequently
taken. But, the best medicine in the
catalogue of Indian simples certainly is the
lotah, or kaut-kullaigee, which is the kernel
taken from the pod of a creeping kind of cow-itch.
This kernel is extremely bitter, and possesses
all the virtues of the bark; but with this
advantage, that, in lieu of binding, it commonly
proves very mildly aperient when taken to the
amount of two or three nuts daily. I have
often given it, with great success, during the
paroxysms of an ague; having previously cleared
the stomach and intestines by suitable means,
such as ipecacuanha and calomel.
That we are absolutely in a state of ignorance
regarding the medical properties of various
plants, highly appreciated by the natives, cannot
be denied; we must not, however, yield an implicit
belief to the many marvellous stories related
throughout Hindostan, of the extraordinary
cures performed by their aid: many
disproofs of such fables are publicly extant, and
teach us to view the objects so highly extolled
through the medium of a minifying glass;
thereby to reduce their virtues to the proper
standard of estimation. So fully was that
learned, and zealous president of the Asiatic
.bn 312.png
.pn +1
Society, Sir William Jones, impressed with an
opinion of our overlooking many of the most
valuable of nature’s vegetable productions, that,
shortly after the formation of that excellent institution,
he expressed a wish, an earnest one,
indeed, for early framing a code of the botany of
Hindostan in particular; and, in a short address
to the society, urged, that a ‘Treatise on the
Plants of India’ should be diligently and carefully
drawn up. In that address, Sir William
says, ‘Some hundreds of plants which are yet
imperfectly known to European botanists, and,
with the virtues of which we are wholly unacquainted,
grow wild on the plains, and in the
forests, of India. The ‘Amarcosh,’ an excellent
vocabulary of the Sanscrit language, contains,
in one chapter, the names of about three
hundred medicinal vegetables; the ‘Medini’ may
comprize as many more; and the ‘Dravyabidana,’
or, ‘Dictionary of Natural Productions,’
includes, I believe, a far greater number; the
properties of which are distinctly related in
medical tracts of approved authority.’
Here I must beg leave to enter my protest
against the too ready acceptance of what the
books above quoted may tender to our medical
repositories; and that for the following reason;
namely, although the natives may be sufficiently
acquainted with certain properties of certain
plants, yet, owing to a total ignorance of pathology,
.bn 313.png
.pn +1
phisiology, nosology, and especially of the
circulation of the blood, and of chemistry as
applicable to analysis and synthesis, it is utterly
impossible they should be able to act except by
rote, and according to their ideas of specifics;
whereby the virtues of the medicines in question
are supposed to be applicable to all the stages,
not only of the same, but of various diseases,
totally opposite in their natures. It surely
cannot require to be pointed out, how uncertain
the results must be under such circumstances,
even when each simple is administered separately,
and with a patient attention to its operation:
but, when we take into account the
known fact, that, on most occasions where the
native Huckeems, or Hakeems, prescribe, they
rely greatly upon compounds of herbs and
minerals; each having its virtues recorded in
some popular distich, to dispute which would
be considered an open avowal of consummate
ignorance; I say, under such circumstances,
we may fairly, and, in duty to ourselves should,
hesitate to receive information from so impure
a source. It is not my intention to
depreciate the merits of many simples in use
among the natives: I argue against their competency
to estimate them; but, at the same
time, entertain no doubt that their several
books may lead us to the greatest advantages,
by giving hints, which, being properly, but
.bn 314.png
.pn +1
guardedly followed up, should enrich our catalogue
of valuable remedies. This cannot be
done in a few days, nor even in a few years:
whenever it may be effected, I doubt not that
the memory of that president, whose life was
devoted to the service, not only of his existing
fellow-creatures, but of posterity also, will be
duly venerated. The Botanic Gardens established
at the several Presidencies, under the
care of medical gentlemen, duly qualified, offer
the means of putting much assertion to the tests
of chemistry, and of time: the former have not,
as yet, been properly resorted to, and the latter
has not run its due course, to enable the philosophical
world to decide with precision.
In the first volume of the Asiatic Researches,
the late Matthew Leslie, Esq. very sensibly observed,
that ‘there are in our Indian provinces
many animals, and many hundreds of medicinal
plants, which have either not been described at
all, or, what is worse, ill described, by the
naturalists of Europe.’ In this remark there is
much truth; but a certain portion of the very
extensive meaning of Mr. Leslie, who was, assuredly,
a man of considerable abilities, and
who had much opportunity for research, will be
received with caution, from the consideration of
his avowed partiality towards native physicians;
who, as I have just stated, are by no means
competent to guide us through the mazes of
.bn 315.png
.pn +1
botanical research. The state of medicine
throughout India, (I mean among the natives,)
is not such as to induce the belief that we shall
obtain any valuable information among the
Huckeems; of whom, full ninety-nine in the
hundred are self-taught, as well as self-sufficient.
What, then, is to be expected among persons
thus practising a profession, to which the old
adage of ‘ars longa, vita brevis’ so admirably applies,
when we see not even one didactic page
to which they can resort; no public institution
where knowledge is either bestowed or received;
no liberal, enlightened, patron, under whose
auspices genius may be enabled to penetrate
into the mines of science? This being the fact,
shall we refrain from smiling at those of our
countrymen who, quitting the aid and guidance
of their well-informed medical friends, resort to
such quacks, whose reputation they thus unjustly
raise among the gaping crowd, and who
have the art to propagate the most unbounded
reliance on their nostrums? That, here and
there, a simple of peculiar efficacy may be in
use among such persons, I shall not deny; but
must appeal to our more enlightened medical
societies, whether, in the hands of an ignorant
man, brought up in vanity, and regardless of
the minutiæ of physical causes and of physical
effects, even the most simple medicine can be
safely entrusted? The greatest part of the
.bn 316.png
.pn +1
burlesque is, that these highly renowned physicians,
to a man, rely upon proper conjunctions of
the planets, lucky hours, &c., not only for the
culling, but for the mixing, and administration
of their medicines, without regard to those
critical moments of which our silly disciples of
Hippocrates and Galen are so very watchful!
We must, however, do the natives the justice
to allow, that the refrigerating principle lately
adopted by some of our leading physicians,
owes its origin solely to the ancient practice of
the Brahmans, or Hindu priests; of whom the
generality affect to be deeply versed in pharmacy.
I believe, that, if taken in time, few
fevers would be found to degenerate into typhus,
and that very seldom any determination towards
the liver from acute cases would occur, were
the refrigerating course to be adopted. Often
have I known my servants, when attacked with
fever, to drink cold water in abundance, and
to apply wet cloths to their heads, with great
success; the former has generally lowered the
pulse considerably, by throwing out a strong
perspiration, while the latter has given immediate
local relief.
Were it not that cast (i.e. sect) opposes a
formidable barrier to the more extensive practice
of European physicians among the natives in
general, the native doctors would speedily be
consigned to their merited contempt: but such
.bn 317.png
.pn +1
are the prejudices arising from religious tenets,
among the Hindus in particular, that, even when
at the last extremity, many would rather die than
suffer any medicine prepared, or perhaps of
which the liquid part had been barely touched,
by one not of their own cast, to enter their
mouths! Where such infatuation prevails,
ignorance will maintain her empire, until, by
the gradual abolition of vulgar errors, the light of
science, and of reason, may begin to glimmer
among the people at large. It will not suffice,
that a few skilful European professors should be
seen, and be admired, by a grateful few: that has
already happened; but the dread of religious
anathema, and of domestic excommunication,
are too forcibly opposed to such weak demonstrations.
Unhappily, we aimed at a reform,
in this particular, at that very point to which it
should have had only a remote tendency: we
peremptorily attacked the very existence of
full a tenth of the whole population, that is,
of the Brahmans, or Hindu priests; and we
excited, among the people at large, suspicions
such as have given scope to our enemies for
inculcating, that we are intent on subjecting
their minds, as well as their bodies.
From this dilemma, I understand, with pleasure,
we are gradually extricating ourselves; by
withdrawing those noxious publications, which,
in a moment of unguarded zeal, we had allowed
.bn 318.png
.pn +1
our clergy to introduce to the notice of the people
of Hindostan. With respect to the motive,
that is out of the question: I am not considering
the merits of one religion opposed to another,
but simply the fact, as it relates to our political
connection with the East, and the diffusion of
true philosophy over that vast region. Nor am
I here censuring the measure in a religious
sense; though, on reference to history, and to
my own experience of the dispositions of the
Hindus, I feel surprized that fanaticism should
have been allowed to meddle with a country
over which we, in truth, have not an efficient
control, and among a race whose tenets are by
no means obnoxious to humanity; among
whom apostacy is a mortal sin, who disclaim all
interference with the doctrines of other sects,
and who have most amply proved their title, at
least to toleration, if not to protection.
I have said, that we began at the wrong
end; and this surely will appear to be the case
when the matter is properly understood. In
lieu of attacking that which carries with it no
offence against ourselves, and instead of endeavoring
to force upon them our creed, we
should have studied to render the natives acquainted
with whatever could tend to their
worldly comfort, and to the removal of errors
often pregnant with destruction. Let us suppose,
for instance, that, in various parts of the
.bn 319.png
.pn +1
country, the Company were to establish schools,
where youths of every description might be
instructed in the mathematics, botany, chemistry,
surgery, pharmacy, agriculture, mechanics,
&c.; and that valuable premiums should, at
certain periods, be presented to such as might
merit the distinction. The obvious consequence
would be, that, in due time, an infinity of
absurdities would vanish, and that, in proportion
as science should expand among them, the
superior circles would begin to estimate our
value as an enlightened people. They would
then look up to us as their superiors; in lieu of
rating us, as they now do, very low indeed on
the scale of degradation. Such a system would
not only give an effectual shake to the basis of
priest-craft, but cause all the literary stores, and
the natural productions of the soil, to be laid
open to our examination: then, indeed, our
medical men might enjoy a high reputation in
every quarter of the East, and the world might
be benefitted, both by the correction of many
errors, and by the acquisition of most important
novelties in medicine, and in the various
arts on which commerce is dependant. Then
should we have no occasion to goad the Hindus
towards Christianity: they would thirst for
knowledge, and pant to be rid of those fetters
imposed upon their minds by their artful
clergy.
.bn 320.png
.pn +1
I have heard it said ‘the natives have no disposition
for the sciences.’ This is imposing a
cruel sentence on a hundred millions of people!
Allow it to be true; and look back to the state
of Britain while under the control, in a certain
measure, of the Druids; who are now well ascertained
to have been the same, in their days, as
the Brahmans of Bengal, &c., are at this time.
Who can fail to admire the change? Who could
suppose it possible that such a change could have
been effected among a people, who, if we are to
give credit to Cæsar, and to other authorities, were
completely barbarous, and ‘who shewed no disposition
for the sciences?’ In opposition to so
absurd, and so malicious an assertion, let me
state a few facts. When Mr. Reuben Burrow
was in India, as head of the mathematical department,
he was solicited by several of the natives
to instruct them in astronomy, algebra, &c.
Unhappily, although possessing pre-eminent talents,
Mr. Burrow was not exactly calculated to
conciliate the good will, nor to excite the admiration,
of persons who did not, like himself, blaze
at the spark of science: in fact, he partook
greatly of the character of the celebrated Doctor
Samuel Johnson, and might be termed ‘a mathematical
Hottentot!’
This important deficiency of suavity caused
the natives to quit; indeed, it tended to disgust
those of his countrymen who, being compelled
.bn 321.png
.pn +1
by their avocations to attend his lectures, were
subjected to his caprices and gross manners.
However, one native, of mediocre opulence, was
not to be scared by what appeared a trifle, when
compared with the acquirements he hoped to
possess: he bent to the storm, and, by unremitting
application, speedily rendered himself
competent to converse with Mr. Burrow on his
usual topic. In time, the student became a
favorite, and was allowed to attend his preceptor
when the latter was deputed on a survey of considerable
extent, and to measure a degree of latitude
in the western districts. Such was the
progress made by this native under the auspices
of Mr. Burrow, that, in a few years, he qualified
himself to instruct others in the ordinary
courses of the higher mathematics. What became
of him I know not; but apprehend that
many others must have derived some little benefit
from his learning: unless, indeed, his priests
found a pretext for upholding him as unworthy
of imitation, and threatened to place all who
might consider him to be thus ‘civilized,’ or
improved, under the bar of ecclesiastical censure.
When I say ‘civilized,’ it is in deference to a
British divine, who has been pleased to represent
the people of Bengal in such terms as might lead
persons who never visited India to set them down
for a cruel, barbarous, ignorant, vindictive, senseless,
and sanguinary race; whose civilization is
.bn 322.png
.pn +1
‘devoutly to be wished.’ How far they merit
such a character, may be understood from their
forbearing to massacre all the Europeans in India;
a work that might be effected by only one in
thousands of their population striking the deadly
blow!
Setting whatever relates to religion apart, and
viewing our intercourse with India as a matter
merely of meum and tuum, it is self-evident, that
to whatever extent we may instruct the natives
to analyze the produce of their soil, and to present
it to us in a marketable shape, so much
must Britain be benefitted by the extension of
her commerce, and by the possession of a territory
whose value would be thereby proportionally
raised. This is said with the view to encourage
the researches of our medical men; who, from
their general knowledge of chemistry, and perhaps
of botany, are certainly best qualified to
pursue them with national effect. Under the
present very limitted establishment of physicians
and surgeons, as well as from the præter nihil
benefits derived from the Botanical Garden, when
seen in this point of view, we are not authorized
to be very sanguine in our hopes that any important
advantages will result in that direction.
While the Company can barely afford a surgeon
and two assistants to a regiment of 2000 men,
it is not to be supposed they could form such
establishments of the above description, as might
.bn 323.png
.pn +1
give us a thorough command over the mineral
and vegetable productions of their territory, or
tend to create a spirit of enquiry among the
natives.
The want of printed books is, in every country,
a great evil; but, in India, is a drawback of
great moment. There, all books, all proclamations,
(except such as we print at Calcutta,
&c.,) all newspapers, &c., &c., are manuscripts.
It is not to be imagined how few
volumes are to be seen even of this kind.
We should suppose that, where provisions,
lodging, cloathing, fuel, &c., are so remarkably
cheap, learning would become general:
the reverse is, however, the case; not one in
five hundred can read, or write, even indifferently.
There are abundance of little day-schools
to which children may be sent at a very trifling
expence; but there they learn very little. Generally,
a bed of sand serves for paper, and a
finger, or a piece of stick, for pen and ink; consequently,
no traces of any instruction remain
for the future consideration of the pupil. The
more affluent, and the more zealous, ordinarily
provide their children with a board, about a foot
long, and nine or ten inches wide, which, being
painted black, and varnished, becomes an admirable
tablet, whereon the young folks are
enabled to write their lessons with a reed pen;
the ink being generally chalk and water. To
.bn 324.png
.pn +1
these, though certainly more perfect than the
former mode, the same objection exists; namely,
that they want stability, and that the lesson is
no sooner repeated by rote, and written much
in the same manner, than it is forgotten, at
least it never again obtrudes on the eye; since,
in order to make way for further instruction, it
is necessarily expunged.
The koits, or scribes, and the láláhs, or accountants,
(though the latter often confine their
occupations to merely reading or transcribing,)
are nearly the same among the lower classes,
especially where the Naugry character is in question,
that the moonshies are among the superior
orders, who, almost invariably, use the Persian
language and character, in all public, as well as
in private, matters. So far, indeed, is this carried,
that Persian is held to be both the language
of the Court, and of the Law.
As those who study the Persian are aided
by moonshies, so are such persons as would
acquire the Naugry character necessitated to
employ koits, or láláhs, for that purpose. The
wages of these may be from two to five rupees
per month; but, in some families, the servants
contribute to the extent of a few annas, or,
eventually, as far as a rupee, in the aggregate;
in consideration of which douceur, the láláh commonly
writes letters for them to their friends,
and explains the answers, &c. Such servants as
.bn 325.png
.pn +1
have the charge of money to be disbursed on
master’s account, commonly take care to be on
good terms with this cullum-burdar (i.e. quill-driver);
who, as has been said of compadores,
generally taxes all items he knows to be overcharged,
by a small deduction in his own favor.
Persons of this class often keep little schools,
such as have been described, and then are designated
gooroos; a term implying that kind of
respect we entertain for pastors in general.
If we contemplate the extreme inattention
prevalent throughout Hindostan, respecting
literary attainments, and the great cunning
practised by the priesthood, in their sedulous
endeavors to prevent the natives from receiving
the least information regarding philosophy in
general, it must appear surprizing that so much
has been done by the artizans of Bengal towards
the adaptation of their labors to the convenience
of the British residents. Our admiration of
these people cannot but be heightened, from the
circumstance of particular trades being confined
to particular casts, or sects; for though we may,
possibly, at first view, consider that to be an
advantage, inasmuch as it should seem to perpetuate
knowledge in an hereditary line, those
who have resided in the East fully know that no
such heir-loom ability is to be found: on the
other hand, we immediately recognize the bar
raised against genius; which, when to be found
.bn 326.png
.pn +1
within the cast, may struggle for ever under some
base, forbidding, and loathsome degradation; or,
if it should start in another sect, cannot adopt
its native intention, but must resign in favor of
some other pursuit, perhaps requiring no genius;
or, eventually, one of a very different bent.
Once a carpenter, always a carpenter; once a
swine-herd, always a swine-herd!
The evil effects attendant upon the useful arts
in general, from such a system, are certainly
great, but by no means to be compared with the
degradations, and consequent imbecility, inseparable
from the total suppression of every thing
tending to excite emulation. When we see an
hereditary priesthood, and that, too, by no means
remarkable for the paucity of its members, we
cannot but picture to ourselves the arrogance
thus privileged in the whole of that tribe, and
the humiliation which marks the actions, as well
as the sentiments, of all who do not stand
within the hallowed pale. Such a contrast can
exist only while one party can deceive, and
while the other deems accusation to be nothing
less than blasphemy; therefore we cannot be
mistaken regarding the only means of correction:
to wit, a knowledge of the world, and of
its inhabitants; or what we, in other terms, call
learning. Pour but a little of this into the minds
of a certain number; satisfy them that morality
in Europe, and morality in Asia, are the same
.bn 327.png
.pn +1
thing; that ‘whether we do our duties in a
black skin, or in a white one,’ matters not; that
men were born to aid each other, and not to be
made the slaves of party, sect, or color; and,
that he who knows most regarding the works of
the Creator, is most likely to have a proper sense
of his bounty. Convince the natives of India,
or of any other nation, that such is the truth,
and that you practise, while you teach, the
doctrines of Christianity, and nothing will, in
the end, be able to stand against so formidable an
attack. But if we proceed, as has been too
rashly done, to attempt a schism among them by
mere declamation, or by means of creeds and
parables in which they have no belief, (merely
because they know no better,) our object will
be either mistaken, or designedly misrepresented;
and we shall experience in Asia all those penalties
that formerly awaited the avowal of Lutheranism
in Europe! In brief; convince the
natives that their priests are fools and knaves,
and that poverty, disgrace, and even disease,
are the consequences of a mistaken bigotry, and
the whole country will prostrate itself at your
feet!
Waving every other objection, and resting
solely on the very inadequate means of instruction
afforded by parents to their children, through
the medium of koits, láláhs, and gooroos, it
seems probable that, unless some effectual reform
.bn 328.png
.pn +1
may take place, the natives of India are likely
to remain in darkness, ad infinitum. This is
the more to be regretted, when we consider
how willing they are to follow such means as
may be offered them, provided those means may
not oppose established principles, nor be contrary
to their ideas of sanctity and benevolence. Nor
can we but repine at such infatuations among a
race whose intellectual qualities, whatever may
be said by ignorant or designing men, are at
least on a par with those of Europeans. That
they are perverted, will not be denied; but,
that they are naturally imperfect, needs little
proof indeed! Set some dozens, or scores, of
our youths to bellow in unison, (with all the
ennui attendant upon monotonous rote,) any
particular passages from the Scripture, day after
day, and year after year; and, after some seasons,
search among them for Newtons, Lockes,
Blackstones, and Solons! The result need not
be told!
In recommending to those of my readers who
may be intent upon acquiring a knowledge of
the language, (by which I mean not only the
Bengallee, and the Hindui, both of which may
be considered vernacular, but the Persian also,)
to purchase such translations as may be extant of
the works of Indian authors, I am far from being
partial to their contents, and disclaim the idea of
affording any thing more than exercise in translation
.bn 329.png
.pn +1
when I do so; for there appears to me a
great disposition to trifle, or to the hyperbole, in
all I have ever seen. By means of such translations,
the originals may be more readily understood,
whereby the study may be rendered both
brief and pleasing; provided proper attention be
paid to all material points, and that, in reading
the translation, the student does not indulge in
the erroneous opinion that he is making himself
master of the original. Almost every book
written in the East is the production of some
court sycophant: a few have resulted from the
labors of men who, being disposed to meditation,
have committed their reveries to paper; and,
a very small portion have displayed such scintillations
of ability, as leave us to regret they
were either not better educated, so as to enlighten
their countrymen, or that they were not
born in those parts of the world where their
talents might have been fostered, and duly appreciated.
With regard to ethics, numbers have
amused themselves, to all appearance, more
from ostentation than from ‘being virtuous
over-much.’ The facility with which scraps
from the Koran, (i.e. the Bible of the Mahomedans,)
may be set forth in glowing terms, in a
language rich in expression, has, no doubt,
induced many a very tolerable lay-man to
annoy his neighbours, by the repetition of page
after page of the most tiresome tautologies,
.bn 330.png
.pn +1
whereon his fame has been built: of this description
abundance exist, all alike unworthy of
review.
I have always thought the poets of India to
be particularly happy in those little tales which
convey a moral, though a very worldly one,
under some alluring allegory. From this, however,
I exempt the celebrated Heetopades,
translated by Mr. Wilkins. This, by general
consent, is allowed to be the store from whence
Pilpay’s Fables have been taken; but the
original can never appear in competition with
their offspring; for, while the latter are interesting,
and afford a very rich treat, by their apt
application to the affairs of life, the former are
heavy, dull, tedious, and of a most motley
character; the subject is generally forced, and
spun out into all the varieties garrulity could
invent!
The Asiatic student may find, in the several
works of Gilchrist, Baillie, F. Gladwin, Sir. W.
Jones, Sir William Ousely, Richardson, and
Wilkins, abundance of instruction in the
several languages most current in Hindostan;
the Asiatic Researches will give him a considerable
insight into a number of interesting and
important matters relating to the natural history
of the East, the manners, and the climate under
consideration; while, by means of Colebrooke’s
Digest of the Hindu Laws, and Rousseau’s
.bn 331.png
.pn +1
Dictionary of Mahomedan Law, he may become
very generally acquainted with that important
branch of knowledge. With respect to the
politics of the country, they have been so much
canvassed, that various treatises on that topic
are to be had: unfortunately, all are either devoted
to partial considerations, or written to
serve a party!
In almost every country, whereof the inhabitants
are either considered by their neighbours,
or deem themselves to be, civilized, the records
of the state, the several libraries, whether scholastic,
traditionary, scientific, or amusing only,
are open to the inspection of persons of all
nations; and, above all, the sacred institutions
are subject to visitation, and even to research.
In India, no such recreation or benefit is ever
afforded to the inquisitive traveller, who may
remain, for years, within a stone’s-throw of
what, to him, would appear an invaluable treasure,
without his being able to obtain the
smallest indulgence in aid of his pursuits.
Whatever may be the complaints against our
continental neighbours on the score of persecution,
we must give them credit for the most
ample toleration of the million of visitors who
intrude on their several cabinets, libraries, &c.;
some, from the most laudable motives, others,
actuated by the mere desire of seeing all that is
to be seen, without, in the least, regarding those
.bn 332.png
.pn +1
points by which the philosophic eye is naturally
attracted. Though so heavy a charge lies
against the Hindus, on account of their strict
rejection of our countrymen, in general, when
application has been made for information on
particular points, it must be allowed, that they
doubtless have, in a few instances, been more
explicit, and furnished information on particular
topics, which, to us, has proved extremely
interesting.
In truth, we have no exclusive right of complaint;
for all nations, and all sects, except their
own, have been equally subject to denial; or,
when indulged, have been compelled to perform
some ceremonies obnoxious to their faith, or to
their persons. Whether this be absolutely
necessary, or has been devised solely with the
intention of deterring the curious, may not be
difficult to determine; thus much we know,
that, in order to obtain admission to a knowledge
of certain forms, or to the perusal of certain
records, various operations, amounting
nearly to apostacy, though no recantation be
made, must be performed.
There is room to doubt whether any true
accounts of the antiquity of the Seek College at
Benares, and of the migrations of the Hindus
from the countries bordering on Palestine,
actually exists: many persons, of considerable
talents, and of great erudition, are disposed to
.bn 333.png
.pn +1
treat the whole of what has been delivered to
us, with so much solemnity, by the Pundits,
or learned Brahmans, as a deception, intended
to ridicule our curiosity, and to repress, or
at least to divert, it from the true course.
Circumstances may be adduced in support of
this hypothesis; and we cannot but regard the
manner in which the Pundits arrogate to themselves
the whole knowledge of their history,
which is carefully concealed from a large portion
even of the Brahmans, as a circumstantial proof
of our having been designedly led astray, both
by a fictitious record, and by a well concerted
fable, invented for the occasion: this may be
aptly compared to the whale and the tub. Fortunately,
no material point appears to rest on
the antiquity, or otherwise, of the Hindu mythology,
or the records of the Seeks, regarding
the origin of that people; though it would
perhaps be found, that their true exposition
might tend to afford many proofs in favor of the
mission of our Saviour.
When the immense extent of territory we
hold in India is considered, and, that perhaps no
country in the world offers greater facilities, not
only for literary correspondence, but for the researches
of naturalists, the conveyance of gross
articles, and the manufacture of raw materials,
which every where abound, we cannot but
lament the want of such institutions as might
.bn 334.png
.pn +1
enable us to turn such important advantages to
the immediate benefit of Great Britain, on the
most unbounded scale. We are absolutely
ignorant of a million of facts now included,
either directly, or by affinity, in our endless
catalogue of desiderata, which need not remain
in that disgraceful list, provided due means
were taken to correct our errors, and to extend
our resources. During the dry season, or at
least for four months in the year, scarce a part of
the country opposes the progress of a traveller;
unless through those immense wildernesses
already described. It may, on the whole, be
said, that one half the country is passable at all
seasons by land; though the progress will
doubtless be slow, and difficult, during the
heavy falls of rain. Intercourse is never at a
stand. The dawk, or post, proceeds at all
seasons; and is rarely more than two days
longer on its way from Calcutta to the upper
provinces, than at the favorable time of the year.
Bridges and ferries are found on all the great
roads; whereby regiments have occasionally
marched on emergency with such despatch, as
could scarcely have been exceeded even during
the hot season.
The communication with Europe, overland,
has been established, during peaceable times, for
full twenty years; but it was not until about
twelve years ago, that the public have been permitted
.bn 335.png
.pn +1
to avail themselves of so essential a
means of correspondence at fixed rates, and
under particular regulations. Prior to that
period, the Company used to receive, and to
despatch, packets overland, in which occasional
indulgences were granted to favored individuals.
I abstract this from the very old custom of
sending intelligence, on sudden occasions, by
the despatch of some confidential person to or
from India. The utility of some permanent
and certain conveyance for letters from a quarter
daily becoming more opulent, and more important,
cannot be doubted; were it only for the
purpose of transmitting bills of exchange payable
after sight, the notices of bankruptcies, the
information of intended consignments, the state
of the markets, &c., such a systematic communication
must be invaluable to the several merchants.
To the Government it is of the
highest importance! Many complain of the
heavy rates of postage overland, and others of
the severe restrictions; but such complaints are
ill founded: the expence of the posts is very
heavy, and it is indispensably necessary for
Government to hold a severe check over whatever
intercourse might lead to mischief.
The tables of postage, and of bangy carriage,
contained in the Directory, will enable the
reader to judge how far the charges are from
being exorbitant: he will not fail to recollect,
.bn 336.png
.pn +1
that the sums paid in Britain are very trifling,
owing to the immense intercourse subsisting
between the several parts of the kingdom, far
beyond what exists in any part of India. Bath is
the same distance from London that the cantonments
of Berhampore are from Calcutta, viz. 106
miles: the former pays 8d. postage, the latter 4
annas, which is about the same sum: the other
charges are considerably cheaper; viz. Allahabad,
which is full five hundred miles from Calcutta,
pays only 7 annas (about 13½d.); but this
is on the great road, while the other is scarcely
to be considered a thoroughfare, compared with
what it was before the new road was cut through
the Ramghur district to Chunar.
With the exception of such parts as may be
infested by tigers, the post seldom or never fails
of arriving within an hour of its appointed time;
except, as has been observed, when the waters
are out; in which case, many circuitous roads
must be followed, whereby the way is considerably
lengthened in the aggregate. Taking the
average, a hundred miles per day may be run
over by the dawk, or post, in fair weather.
Each mail-bag is conveyed by an hirkarah, (or
runner,) who is attended by one or two doog-doogy-wallahs,
or drummers, who keep up a
kind of ‘long-roll,’ as they pass any suspicious
place. Ordinarily, two mosaulchees, or link-bearers,
accompany each dawk; and, where
.bn 337.png
.pn +1
tigers are known to commit depredations, one
or two teerin-dauzes, or archers, are supplied,
under the intention of protecting the party.
But such puny aid is of no avail; for the onset
of the tiger is too sudden, and too discomfiting,
to allow any effort of consequence to be
timously adopted: the very act of seizure is a
death-blow, from which I never heard of any
recovery; provided the unhappy victim were
not so particularly situated as to prevent it from
decidedly taking effect.
Here it may be needful to explain, that a tiger
invariably strikes his prey with the fore paw, in
so forcible a manner as often to fracture the
skull; which, generally, is the object aimed at:
many oxen have had their cheek bones shivered
by the contusion. It sometimes happens, that
the marks of one or two claws are to be seen,
but they are generally en passant, and by no
means the result of primary intention. The
wrist of a tiger being often nearly two feet in
circumference, may give some idea of the
violence with which the coup de grace falls on
the head of a human being! The mosauls, or
flambeaux, are intended to intimidate the tigers,
as are also the doog-doogies, but experience has
shewn that, when hungry, tigers are not to be
restrained by any such device: indeed, instances
have occurred of the mosaulchees themselves
.bn 338.png
.pn +1
being carried off. It would, nevertheless, be
presumptuous to judge from such partial data,
that many tigers are not deterred by the noise
and fire accompanying the letter-carriers; on the
contrary, there should rather seem a probability,
that many young tigers, or such grown ones as
may not be hungry, nor be attended by cubs, are
frequently intimidated from those attacks they
would make but for these precautions. A residence
of two years at Hazary-Bang, the station
for a battalion in the Ramghur district, enabled
me to form a fair estimate of the dangers to
which the dawk, and travellers in general, were
subject. During some seasons, the roads were
scarcely to be considered passable; day after
day, for nearly a fortnight in succession, some of
the dawk people were carried off, either at
Goomeah, Kannachitty, Katcumsandy, or Dungaie;
four passes in that country, all famous for
the exploits of these enemies to the human race!
So few valuables are ever sent by the post,
that thieves never attempt any depredations on
the letter-bags. Hoondiés (i.e. banker’s drafts)
would be of no use whatever to them; and as
bank notes are not in general currency, no object
is held out for enterprize of that description.
Nor do the dawk-bangies, or parcel-dawks, offer
any substantial inducement; for, even if any
plate, or watches, or trinkets, were to be sent by
.bn 339.png
.pn +1
such a conveyance, the want of a market, and
the impossibility of confiding in any village
jeweller, would render the act both hazardous
and unavailing. Hence, the dawk generally
proceeds in perfect safety, throughout every part
of the country; while the bangies maybe considered
equally secure; except, indeed, in some
parts of the dominions of the Nabob Vizier of
Oude, where a lawless uncontrolled banditti
subject every passenger to contribution: this
evil is fortunately on the decline, in consequence
of our having assumed the reins of
government.
It has frequently been asked why, in a country
so completely under our control, we did not
establish mails, similar to those in use throughout
England. Before this can be effected, an
immense revolution must take place, not only in
the minds of the natives, but in the features of
the country. At present, there appears no desire
on the part of the inhabitants to communicate
by land, farther than may be necessary for the
purpose of attending hauts, (markets,) maylahs,
(fairs,) or for the resort to certain places of worship,
&c. For such purposes, a pedestrian trip
suffices; or, at the utmost, a poney, worth only
a few shillings, is either borrowed or hired. The
contact of various casts, or sects, being considered
a pollution, it is not to be supposed that
a Hindu would like to be pent up, for hours
.bn 340.png
.pn +1
together, with a Mahomedan, who makes no
scruple of killing and eating a cow: or that the
Mussulman would, in his turn, feel comfortable
under similar circumstances, with a British
kaufur, (unbeliever,) who, besides his condemnation
of the prophet, makes no scruple of devouring
ham and bacon wholesale! Admitting
that all parties should be agreed to associate
within the body of a stage-coach, still there
would not exist intercourse sufficient to support
the expences, in a quarter where horses are so
dear, and where the necessary repairs could not,
in case of accident, be promptly effected. Then,
again, the roads must be suitably made, at an
enormous expence, and be afterwards supported
by heavy disbursements, or by a contribution of
labor on the part of the land-holders, by no
means agreeable to their feelings. All this may,
in time, pass under a complete metamorphosis:
the produce of the country will be more
generally estimable; the people will relax greatly
from the vigorous attention now paid to religious
tenets; and, as their prejudices may give way
to their true interests, will extend their speculations
without fear or restriction. Those who may
then inhabit India, will see roads, mails, and
inns; whereas, at present, there are only pathways
and runners, but no inns. There are, to
be sure, seraies and choultries, for the accommodation
of travellers, but these are mostly going
.bn 341.png
.pn +1
fast to decay; and, at the best, can be viewed
only as shelter for men and cattle; goods being
usually left exposed to the weather. The bytearens,
or female cooks, who ply, in more than
one capacity, at such places, and who, on
receiving money before-hand, buy and cook
such victuals as may be ordered, or the place
may afford, cannot be considered otherwise
than as menials, and not to be classed with our
inn-keepers; no, nor even with the poorest
village retailer, ‘Lysunst to del in T, Koffy, and
Tibaky!’
There is, however, a wide field for practical
improvement; as may be fully understood from
the following statement. The dawk rarely
travels at a less expence than twenty-five rupees
per month, for each stage of eight miles (four
cosses) on the average. This sum is absorbed
by a moonshy at each chokey, or relief at the end
of a stage, who pretends to be very scrupulous in
regard to ascertaining that all the parcels are
right, but who, as I have repeatedly witnessed,
is more intent on receiving little presents of
ottah, (meal,) spices, &c., sent to him from the
neighbouring villages, in return for letters conveyed
by the dawk-hirkarahs, who are sometimes
laden pretty heavily with such contributions.
I speak from what I have been an eye-witness
to repeatedly; as to hear-say, much more
might be asserted. It appears to me that the
.bn 342.png
.pn +1
above sum would carry on the system with double
the speed, and double the efficiency. In
lieu of sending off four, five, and six, men with
the dawks, let a horseman convey the bags for
about twelve miles, on an allowance of fifteen
rupees per month for man and horse; and, during
the rainy season, when the roads are deep, let
a fresh horse be allowed for the several returns,
instead of causing the same man and horse to
return with the counter-dawks. On the above
allowance a very good steed might be kept, the
celerity of the dawk would be greatly encreased,
and there would be no occasion for moonshies,
except at such chokies as might be upon diverging
roads, where it would be necessary to have
the proper parcels sorted out, and delivered to
the various branch-dawks.
Travelling in a palanquin by dawk, (i.e. post,)
is effected much in the same manner as the
despatch of the dawks. Bearers are stationed at
the several stages, for the purpose of relief;
each station, in general, supplying eight bearers,
and a bangy, in all nine men, together with one
or two mosaulchies for night stages. The expence
of travelling in this manner will depend
greatly on the distance: if only a short journey
is to be made, such as may be compassed within
eight or ten hours, nothing more is needful than
to send on a set, or two, of bearers, who then
receive their daily hire of four annas (8d.) each,
.bn 343.png
.pn +1
while out from home; or, if there should exist
the means of so doing, a hirkarah, (or messenger,)
may be despatched to collect bearers at the
several stages. In this manner, the relays may
be properly supplied, and the cost will not
amount to more than a rupee for three miles;
equal to ten-pence a mile; whereas, in the ordinary
mode of having bearers laid by the post-master,
each mile will cost full one rupee,
(i.e. 2s. 6d.,) besides various little disbursements
by way of buxees, or presents, to every
set of bearers in the journey: these may be fairly
estimated at two rupees for every set, or relief,
which, if the distances run by each should average
ten miles, will be about twenty rupees
(£2. 10s.) for every hundred miles. The ordinary
rate of this kind of conveyance may be
rated at four miles per hour during the cold
season, three and a half during the hot season,
and from two to three during the rains, provided
the waters are not much out: otherwise,
no estimate can be formed. The above includes
stops.
The establishment of dawk-bangies for the
conveyance of parcels, at rates in proportion to
their weights respectively, has produced considerable
convenience to those who reside at a
distance from the Presidency. Until this plan
was adopted, few could send small articles,
such as trinkets, &c., to the Presidency, but
.bn 344.png
.pn +1
under favor of some individual who might perchance
be travelling thither, and who might
possibly be some months on the way: the same
inconvenience attended the return; so that it
was not uncommon for a gentleman whose watch
required inspection, to be four or five months
deprived of its use. This is now done away,
and a watch, &c. may be sent from Cawnpore to
Calcutta, there undergo repair, and be returned
with ease, in the course of a month, or less.
The same kind of convenience is, of course,
afforded regarding books, and all other articles
too bulky, or too heavy, to proceed by the dawk,
but not of sufficient importance to induce the
employment of a boat, or of a bangy, to convey
them: nor, indeed, could a single bearer travel
with a bangy more than twenty miles within the
twenty-four hours; so that he would be full a
month in going from Calcutta to Cawnpore;
whereas, the dawk-bangies travel by relays of
bearers, therefore can almost keep up with the
dawk-hirkarahs, who carry the mail-bags suspended
at the end of a stick over their shoulders.
The communication by water between Calcutta
and the several subordinate stations, whether
civil or military, is much resorted to; during
the rainy season in particular. At that time,
few are inaccessible to craft of some description,
though but for a while: those immense falls of
.bn 345.png
.pn +1
rain which cause the ravines to fill, and every little
creek to become navigable for boats of ten or
fifteen tons, swell the Ganges, and the other
great rivers, to an astonishing height; causing
them to run with awful velocity. The rivers
generally rise in May, but a few inches only,
in June, they often approach the summits of
their banks, between which they fluctuate,
rising and falling until the great swell, which
takes place in August. Sometimes the river
rises twice, sometimes thrice, or, even four
times, during the season; but, in general, one
ample inundation serves all the purposes of agriculture,
provided the rains do not afterwards
abate too suddenly in September, before the rice
is cut. When such an untimely cessation takes
place, it is attended with great mortality: the
immense expanse of slime, suddenly exposed to
the influence of the sun, then on the equinoctial,
throws forth the most destructive miasma,
whereby epidemics, of the most dangerous description,
are propagated.
The swelling of the great rivers is a matter of
great uncertainty; sometimes they rise very
early, before the quantity of rain that falls in
the lower provinces could lead to the expectation
of their doing so: when this is the case, it
is not uncommon to see the Cossimbazar river,
commonly called the Baugrutty, nearly dry at
night, and full twenty feet, or more, deep the
.bn 346.png
.pn +1
next morning. In other seasons the waters are
very tardy; a matter of serious moment to the
husbandman, who is naturally anxious to plant
his crop of rice in due time, so that it may be
securely attached to the soil before the great
inundation comes on. The growth of the rice
stalk is certainly one of the most curious proofs
of nature’s adaptation of that plant to the situation
in which it is cultivated; namely, in the
water: it will not thrive unless the stem be
immersed for several inches; and, owing to the
formation of its stalk, which draws out like the
concentric tubes of a pocket telescope, it can
put forth many feet in the course of a few hours,
so as, apparently, to grow as fast as the water
may rise, and to keep its pannicle from being
overflowed. It is by no means rare for the rice
stalks to shoot forth from five to six feet during
the twenty-four hours: I have seen it do much
more!
In parts subject to the regular annual inundation,
all the villages are built on rising grounds:
many stand on artificial mounds, formed by
excavations around their bases, so that they are
surrounded nearly by moats, in which their dingies,
or small boats, are immersed during the
dry season, and affording admirable refreshment
to their buffaloes during the summer heats. But
it sometimes happens, that the waters rise to so
great a height as to endanger even these elevated
.bn 347.png
.pn +1
villages; some of which are then completely
inundated. To avoid this, most of the houses
are built upon piles, or stakes, thereby to raise
their floors from four to six feet above the ground,
and open enough to permit the waters to pass
through with freedom. In the dry time of the
year, the cattle are occasionally kept within the
areas thus enclosed under the floors; but, while
the inundation is at its height, so as to insulate
a village completely, all the live stock are kept
in boats moored around it, where they are fed
by a species of the doob, or doop-grass, dragged
up from the bottom of the waters by means of
split bamboos, made to serve as forks: but for
so providential a supply, the cattle must be
led scores of miles to some part of the country,
whose elevation exempts it from inundation.
The mention of a country being so completely
under water, cannot but cause considerable surprize.
The fact is, however, too well known to
be disputed. Even at Berhampore, which is
not considered within the ordinary verge of inundation,
it is common to see boats of great burthen,
perhaps fifty tons, sailing over the plains,
as through a boundless sea. As to the country
lying between the mouth of the Jellinghy and
the debouchures of the Ganges, that is always
overflowed for full three months, perhaps to the
average depth of ten or twelve feet. I have
sailed over it full a hundred miles by the compass;
.bn 348.png
.pn +1
aided, indeed, by some remarkable villages,
mosques, banks, &c., well known to the
boatmen, who, probably from their earliest days,
had traversed the same expanse during every
rainy season.
Were it not for the water being strongly colored,
and the strength of the current, it would not
be easy in many places to distinguish the great
rivers which are crossed in steering through
this fresh-water ocean: the water of the inundation
is generally of a bluish tinge, derived
from the quantity of vegetable matter at the
bottom, of which a certain quantity decays,
and partially taints the fluid. A large portion
is concealed by the d’haun, (or rice,) which
rises above its surface. This, in the first instance,
bears the appearance of a long grass, of a rich
green, rising above the surface, so as to be mistaken
at a little distance for terra firma: gradually,
the pannicles shoot forth, of a pale-dun color,
turning, as they ripen, to a deep dun, or light clay.
The grains of rice, which are called by Europeans
‘paddy,’ retain the name of d’haun so
long as in their coats; as we often see a few
grains among the rice imported to us: these
coats are peculiarly harsh to the feel, and are
fluted longitudinally, so that no water can
lodge upon them. Each grain is fastened to
a short stalk, joining to a main stem, and furnishing
a very pleasing bunch of grain, not very
.bn 349.png
.pn +1
dissimilar to an ear of oats, but far richer, both
in color, and in quantity. Rice has no husk or
chaff; therefore is easily separated from the
straw, which is eaten by cattle when no other
provender can be had, and makes excellent
litter, it being very long and soft. Where the
inundation prevails, the straw is of little use:
the grain being cut in boats, and the straw settling
at the bottom as the waters subside; thereby
adding to the natural fertility of the soil. In
the more elevated parts, the straw is cut the
same as in the rubbee, or corn crops, and bundled
for domestic purposes: there, its length rarely
exceeds two feet, whereas, among the inundations,
it is often seen from fifteen to eighteen
feet in length. The head, or pannicle, generally
bears from a hundred and fifty, to three hundred,
grains of rice.
Two modes of clearing rice from the shell are
in use; the one performed by the very simple
process of scalding, which occasions the rice to
swell, and to burst the shell, so that the latter is
removed with very little trouble; the other is,
by putting the d’haun into an immense wooden
mortar, called an ookly, and beating it by the
application of two or more beetles, called moosuls,
of about four feet in length, by three
inches in diameter, shod at the bottom with
iron ferules, and thinned towards their centres,
so as to be grasped by the women; each alternately
.bn 350.png
.pn +1
impelling one, in nearly a perpendicular
direction, among the d’haun in the ookly. After
the shells have been duly separated, the rice,
now called choul, is separated, by winnowing
either in a strong draught of air, or by means of
a kind of scoop, made of fine wicker-work,
called a soop, wherewith the native women can
most dexterously separate different kinds of
corn, and effectually remove all rubbish. The
coat of rice is peculiarly harsh, and not much
relished by cattle: I have seen it mixed with
dung for fuel with excellent effect.
The natives, in general, make little distinction
between the rice separated by scalding,
which is called oosnah, and that dressed by the
ookly, which is called urwah; but some of the
more fastidious prefer one or the other, according
to particular prejudices handed down in their
families, or supposed to appertain to their respective
sects. I think the scalded rice generally
deficient in flavor; the grains are larger,
and less compact; the beaten rice certainly boils
with rather more difficulty, but appears whiter,
and drier. The scalded rice does not immediately
separate from the coat, but is usually submitted
to the operation of a machine composed
of a stout beam, nearly equipoised by means of
a thorough-pin, on a fork, of wood also, fixed
in the ground.
It is inconceivable what quantities of rice, of
.bn 351.png
.pn +1
a coarse reddish cast, but peculiarly sweet, and
large grained, are prepared, about Backergunge,
near the debouchure of the Megna, for exportation.
In that quarter fuel is cheap, and water
conveyance every where at hand; so that the
immense crops raised in the inundated districts
find a ready sale. The average return from a
bigah of 1600 square yards, of three bigahs to
our statute acre, sown with about twenty-five
seers of d’haun, may be taken at nine maunds.
The price of the grain, when cleared of its coat,
may be from thirty to forty seers of fine rice, and
from sixty even to a hundred and twenty seers
(i.e. three maunds) of coarse, commonly called
‘cargo-rice.’ But the demand always regulates
the value; especially when great consignments
are forwarded to the coast of Coromandel.
Large quantities of rice are usually cleared by
contract, the operator receiving the grain at the
door of the golah, or warehouse, where he sets
up his cauldron and machines, and returning
twenty-five seers of clean rice for every maund
(forty seers) delivered to him; he finding the
fuel, and reserving the husks. In a country
where labor is so very cheap, it is not so very
necessary to have recourse to mechanical devices
for the purpose of diminishing the expence of
such operations; yet it occurs to me, that,
were tide wheels to be used at Backergunge and
elsewhere, or a floating mill, like that moored
.bn 352.png
.pn +1
between Blackfriars’ and London Bridge, to be
made out of some condemned hulk, an immense
advantage would be gained in regard to time.
By the proper adaptation of machinery, whereby
the rice might be hoisted in, or lowered down,
either by the force of water, or of steam, and the
beetles be properly worked, the grain might
certainly be prepared for market in less time,
and infinitely less charge for cooly hire, in landing,
loading, &c.: should this hint be well received
by any speculating European, it might
tend to lower the prices of rice at those times,
when, either from want of laborers, or from the
expediency of shipping off with as little delay as
possible, the saving of a few days might prove
an object of importance. At all events, the work
might be done more regularly, more frugally,
and more independently, than by manual process.
The rice grown in the low countries by no
means equals that produced in the uplands,
where it is cultivated with great care, and subjected
to many vicissitudes in regard to the state
of moisture in which its roots are retained. In
many parts of the most hilly districts d’haun is
to be seen in every little narrow valley, winding
among the bases of those stupendous eminences
from which the torrents of rain supply a superabundant
flow of moisture at one time, while, at
others, only the little rills proceeding from boggy
.bn 353.png
.pn +1
springs seem to feed the artificial pools in which
the growing plants are kept in a state of semi-immersion,
by means of small embankments
made of mud. In every instance the d’haun is
to be kept duly watered; else it withers, and
becomes unproductive. In order to preserve the
water as much as possible, the bed, or level,
nearest to the springs, is raised as high as can
be afforded, and its exterior border banked up,
to about a foot and a half, with soil: the next
level may be from a foot to a yard lower, and
receives the overflow; which is again passed on
to the next lower bed; and thus, in succession,
for perhaps a mile or more; the ends of the beds
requiring no embankment, on account of the
land rising on either side. Such situations afford
a certain crop in ordinary seasons; and, if the
rains should fail, the dews falling on the adjacent
hills, generally covered with jungle of some
kind, ordinarily afford moisture enough to keep
up the springs, thus causing sufficient dampness
to prevent the rice from perishing, before some
ample showers may again float the whole of the
irrigated cultivation. Rice thus produced is
commonly small in grain, rather long and wiry,
but remarkably white, and admirably suited to
the table. The natives, though they admire its
appearance, are not partial to it; they generally
preferring the larger-bodied grain, with a reddish
inner rind, which does not readily separate, when
.bn 354.png
.pn +1
new, from the rice: this kind, as I have before
expressed, is assuredly the sweetest, and is, on
that account, preferred by those who distil
arrack.
Remoteness from the sea air is said to be the
reason why the up-country rice possesses less
saccharine matter than that grown near the sea-coast,
and among the inundation; but this appears
an erroneous judgment. There is, no
doubt, a great encrease of saccharine matter in
plants (of the same genus) cultivated on spots
well manured: now, few, if any, of the places
devoted to the cultivation of rice in the upper
country, receive much aid from manure; nor are
they, in general, subject to the reception of nutritious
particles, such as are either floated down,
or are engendered and deposited by, the inundation,
which may be viewed as the grand depôt
of whatever can enrich the soil. When we look
to the large tracts of plain, not subject to such
an immense flow of feculous moisture, but seeming
merely as reservoirs for the retention of local
rains, we shall then see, that the superior sweetness
of the rice produced about Backergunge,
Dacca, Hajygunge, Luricool, Mahomedpore, Comercolly,
Jessore, &c., is to be attributed solely
to the superior fatness of the soil, on which the
most luxuriant crops of cotton, and of esculents,
are raised during the dry season. When the soil
is fresh turned up for the second crop, it is generally
.bn 355.png
.pn +1
very offensive, and, doubtless, by no means
favorable to the health of the cultivators, who,
at that season, (commonly in November, December,
and January,) are subjected to very
obstinate agues.
Rice is very subject to the weevil, which
often multiplies among it so fast, as to
threaten destruction to the whole depôt. The
natives have recourse to a very simple preventive;
viz. by placing one or two live cray-fish
within the heap: their effluvia quickly expel
the predatory tribe. Here we have a question
for naturalists and philosophers; a question
pregnant with interest to the agricultural world,
namely, ‘Whether there is any particular, and
what, property in a live cray-fish, that produces
this effect upon insects under such circumstances?’
Whatever may be the cause, the
effect is well known; therefore the enquiry is
so far forwarded as to furnish data, or at least
hints, respecting those results which might be
expected both from marine productions, and from
other living bodies. The inhabitants of the
lower provinces are chiefly Hindus; therefore,
owing to religious tenets, by which they are led
to consider almost every animal as unclean, few
experiments could be expected to take place
among them; otherwise, we might probably
have found that any living animal, such as a rat,
a frog, &c., if confined in a small box, and
.bn 356.png
.pn +1
placed within a heap of rice infested by weevils,
would produce a similar effect. Rice is by no
means subject to this species of depredation
when in the coat, that is, in the state called
d’haun, but the natives are averse to retaining it
in that form, because the grains shrink considerably,
and, when beat out for sale, do not occupy
so much space as when exposed to the air.
Hence, it is an object with the rice-merchants
to dispose of their crops before the month of
March, unless the markets may be so glutted as
to cause that grain to sell, as it has in some years
done, at such low prices as could not fail to ruin
the farmer. It has been known so cheap as
seven and eight maunds (equal to seven cwt.)
for a rupee! When this happens, such merchants
as have the command of money rarely fail
to make immense fortunes. Many have been
known to possess four or five lacs of maunds!
Rice is the most common article of food among
the natives, whether Hindus or Mussulmans,
throughout the lower provinces, where it is to
be found in far greater abundance than corn of
any description. The inhabitants of the upper
provinces, where wheat and barley are cultivated
to such an extent as to be sold in the retail for
about a rupee and a quarter, and a rupee, respectively,
subsist chiefly on the meals of those
grains; which, being well kneaded with water,
are made into chow-patties, or bannocks, are baked
.bn 357.png
.pn +1
at the common choolahs, and are both palatable
and nourishing. The natives hold an opinion
that rice is very injurious to the sight; but, I
believe, whatever injury may arise from its use
proceeds entirely from eating it too hot, and in
such quantities at one meal, generally about
sun-set, as can scarcely fail to injure the stomach.
Barley-meal is considered, and with
great justice, to be very nourishing, but heating;
therefore most of those who prefer ottah
(meal) to rice, use that made from wheat. Large
quantities of rice are carried upwards, towards
the Nabob Vizier’s dominions, where it sells to
great advantage; while, on the other hand,
immense consignments of corn, chiefly wheat,
barley, and r’hur, are made from those parts
towards the lower districts; where they are consumed
by all classes of persons. While the
Baugrutty, (i.e. the Cossimbazar river,) and the
Jellinghy, both of which branch from the Ganges,
and, uniting at Nuddeah, form the Hoogly,
which passes Calcutta, are open, boats of all
kinds proceed that way; but chiefly through
the former channel, on which Moorshadabad,
Berhampore, Cossimbazar, and Jungypore, are
situate. This is the shortest line of communication
by water between the Presidency and the
upper provinces; but, unfortunately, it is open
only for about six months in the year; it rarely
having water before the middle of June, and
.bn 358.png
.pn +1
being commonly reduced to a very low ebb by
the middle of December; though, in some years,
it remains navigable for small boats for a month
or six weeks longer. It may, indeed, be passed
in such all the year through, provided they be
dragged over the shallows, which, often for a
mile or more, oppose the progress of whatever
may draw more than a few inches of water:
in such case, the bottom of a boat should be
good, otherwise she may be strained by the
immense exertions of perhaps fifty men, who,
ranging along either side, and dragging by means
of ropes, as well as by pushing and lifting behind,
force her along the shallows, and thus pass her
over all the more prominent obstacles. I have,
more than once, had a very small pulwar-budjrow
navigated, if I may so call it, down the Baugrutty,
from Mohanahpore, at the mouth of that
river, as far as Berhampore; which, by land, is
full forty miles, and, by water, cannot be less
than seventy. But there are so many bars, or
shoals, between Berhampore and Augah-Deep,
about thirty-five miles by land, lower down, as
to render that part absolutely impassable, except
when the river has an average depth of two feet,
or two feet and a half.
During the dry months, the whole of the commodities
transmitted from the upper provinces
to the Presidency, with the exception of some
few articles of small compass, which may be
.bn 359.png
.pn +1
landed at Bagwangolah, and proceed to Augah-Deep
overland, are sent down the Ganges for the
purpose of proceeding through the Soonderbunds.
This highly interesting, but difficult navigation,
reaches from the Megna to Calcutta, near to
which a canal offers to adventurers a safe and
easy communication between the Hoogly and
the Salt-Water Lake, which lies at the back of
Calcutta. The generality of trading and passage
vessels proceed by this cut, paying a moderate
toll, either on the tonnage of the former, or the
number of oars of the latter. But the salt vessels
despatched from Joynaghur, &c., with the
produce of the different pans in that quarter,
commonly take the lower passages near Chingree-Cauly,
and Culpee, which are by far the most
dangerous, though rather more direct.
The Soonderbunds, or Sunderbunds, consist of
an immense wilderness, full fifty miles in depth,
and in length about a hundred and eighty miles.
This wilderness, which borders the coast to the
water’s edge, forming a strong natural barrier in
that quarter, occupies the whole of what is called
the Delta of the Ganges; every where intersected
by great rivers, and innumerable creeks,
in which the tides are so intermixed, that a pilot
is absolutely necessary, both to thread the intricacies
of the passage, and to point out at what
particular parts the currents will, at certain times,
be favorable in proceeding either to the eastward
.bn 360.png
.pn +1
or to the westward. In many places there is
scarcely breadth for the passing of a single boat,
and even then the boughs of the immense trees,
and of the subordinate jungle, frequently are
found so to hang over, as nearly to debar the
progress of ordinary trading vessels. Fortunately,
these narrow creeks are short, or, at
least, have in various parts such little bays as
enable boats to pass: one or two are, however,
so limitted throughout in point of width, as to
render it expedient that musquets should be
discharged before a boat proceeds, in order that
others may not enter at the opposite end of the
narrow: but for such a precaution, one of them
would be compelled to put back. The water
being brackish, or rather absolutely salt, throughout
the Sunderbunds, it is necessary for all who
navigate this passage, to take a good stock;
calculating for at least a fortnight’s service.
Even the villages, which here and there are to be
found on the banks of the great rivers, are sometimes
supplied from a great distance; especially
during the dry season, when the tides are very
powerful.
The regular trading vessels, which pass through
the Sunderbunds, perhaps every month, or two,
are usually provided with very large nauds, or
gounlahs, made in the form of a rather flat turnep,
of a black earth which bakes very hard. Casks
are never used in India for water; all the ships
.bn 361.png
.pn +1
in the country trade have one or more tanks
made of teak wood, rendered perfectly water
tight, and containing from twenty to fifty butts.
The water is thus carried in a small compass,
and remains sweet much longer than when in
casks. Even if no other reason could be assigned,
it must be obvious, that, in a tank, the
surface of wood necessary to contain fifty butts
of water, will not exceed six hundred and fifty
square feet; whereas, each of the fifty butts
would present a surface of more than forty feet,
whence the whole must amount to two thousand
square feet.
Where a ship is navigated by lascars, many
rules and ceremonies are adopted for the preservation
of the water from impure contact. When
native troops are on board, only particular
persons are allowed to lay it in, or to serve it
out, and even under such precaution, many of
the more fastidious shew great aversion to using
the tank water; often undergoing great sufferings,
both from hunger and from thirst, rather
than drink of it, or even taste of viands prepared
therewith. But this prejudice has, of
late years, subsided considerably, in consequence
of the frequent occasions the British
government have had to send native troops on
distant expeditions by sea.
Casks would certainly prove obnoxious to
servants, and others, proceeding through the
.bn 362.png
.pn +1
Soonderbunds, owing to a general opinion among
them, that we convey spirits, meat, &c., in such
vessels; which, having been once used for such
a purpose, could never be viewed by them as
receptacles for beverage, without disgust and
execration.
The town of Calcutta is supplied with firewood
by persons who resort to the woods, about
twenty-five miles from Calcutta, where they
cut the smaller kinds of serress, jarrool, soondry,
g’hob, &c., into junks about four feet in length,
which are rived into two or four pieces, according
to their diameter, and carried to market,
where such billets are usually retailed at from
twelve to fourteen rupees per hundred maunds,
delivered at the door. This is the only kind of
fuel used in the kitchens of Europeans, and
forms the supply of nine-tenths of the native
population also: the remainder use the gutties
made of dung.
It is to be lamented that Government have
never adopted a plan I long ago offered, of employing
the convicts in clearing away a sufficient
tract around Diamond Harbour, which is now
peculiarly unhealthy, and is the grave of full
one-fourth of the crews of the India Company’s,
and other ships, that generally are moored there
for months.
I am aware that objections have been stated
in regard to clearing away the forests in the
.bn 363.png
.pn +1
Soonderbunds, on account of their being considered
a natural defence in that quarter; but,
without entering upon the policy, or otherwise,
of such a retention of that ‘wilderness of all
wildernesses,’ there does not appear to me any
sound reason for suffering the principal naval
station to be backed and flanked by woods and
swamps, from which disease is poured forth
amidst our unfortunate countrymen.
I have been assured, that, taking one year
with another, full three hundred European
sailors die of diseases incident to the laying up
of ships for a while in the river, of whom, the
larger portion are taken ill at, or below,
Diamond Harbour.
Those who have occasion to pass through the
Sunderbunds, which can be done by water only,
ought to be extremely careful not to venture
ashore, unless at some of the little towns,
whose vicinity may afford some security against
the attacks of tigers, by the jungle having been
partially cleared away. The romantic scenery,
every where inviting the eye, should not be permitted
to allure the traveller from his state of
safety; nor should the abundance of game,
especially of deer, lead him among those coverts
in which danger equally abounds.
Nor are the waters less devoid of mischief:
sharks, of an uncommon size, are every where
numerous and greedy; while their competitors,
.bn 364.png
.pn +1
the alligators, not only infest the streams, but
often lie among the grass and low jungle,
waiting for a prey, with which, so soon as seized,
they plunge into the water.
Instances have been know, both of tigers
swimming off to board boats, and of alligators
striking the dandies (boatmen) out of the boats,
with their tails, and snapping their victims up
with a nimbleness fully proving the falsehood of
that doctrine, which teaches to escape from the
crocodile by running out of the right line,
‘because the animal cannot turn to follow!’
If those who either gave, or believed in, such
advice, were to see with what facility an alligator
can turn about, or with what agility he can pursue,
and catch, the large fishes that abound in
the great rivers of India, the folly would be so
self evident, as to cause an immediate dereliction
of so preposterous an opinion.
Besides, the koomeer, or bull-headed alligator,
which, generally speaking, is the only kind to be
seen in brackish waters, is peculiarly fierce and active;
far more so than could be supposed, at first
sight, of an amphibious animal of the lacerta tribe,
(for it is nothing more than an immense lizard, or
guana,) whose length has been thirty feet, and
whose girth has equalled twelve feet.
Such is the ravenous disposition of the
koomeer, that it will not hesitate to seize cattle
that proceed to drink of the river water where
.bn 365.png
.pn +1
it is fresh; but this does not often happen; the
places where cattle proceed to slake their thirst,
being, for the most part, rather shallow, so that
an alligator, sufficiently formidable for such an
attack, could not lie concealed. It has fallen
within my way to see some oxen that had been
seized by the head, or by the fore leg, but which
had either been rescued by their drovers, or had
succeeded in escaping from their merciless
enemy: they were all so lacerated as to be completely
disfigured!
The size of a boat may make much difference
regarding the time required to make the Soonderbund-passage:
generally from ten to twelve days
will elapse in making the shortest cut in a budjrow
of from twelve to sixteen oars; while a
light pulwar, that can pass through the lesser
creeks, and make way against the tides,
which are extremely intricate, on account of the
numerous channels that wind in every direction,
may perhaps get through in seven or eight days.
Much will depend on the route: if Dacca, or
any part of the Megna, be the destination, full
ten days will be requisite, but if the Comercolly
track, which opens into the Ganges nearly opposite
to Nattore, be followed, the great body of
the wilderness will be avoided, and the fertile
districts of Jessore, Mahomedpore, and Comercolly,
will be passed through with facility and
gratification.
.bn 366.png
.pn +1
It does not appear that any accurate survey
has been taken of the Soonderbunds, further
than to ascertain the several channels, and to
lay down the bearings of particular shoals, which
run for many miles off the coast, presenting, on
the whole, a most intricate and dangerous
approach to vessels even of small burthen;
though, with proper care, ships of great size may
be carried into the Rogmungul, the Hooringattah,
and the Mutwallah rivers, where they may
ride in perfect safety.
Mr. Benjamin Lacarn, many years back, explored
the passage at the back of Saugur Island,
and presented to the Government in India very
accurate draughts of the soundings and bearings;
from which he enabled the Board to judge
of the practicability of resorting to that passage,
with more safety and convenience than now
exists, in respect to those channels that lie to
the westward of Saugur.
The spot selected for the reception of vessels
was called New Harbour, and the stream leading
to it from Culpee was designated Channel
Creek. It is to be presumed, that, notwithstanding
the plan has not been carried into
effect, although occasionally resorted to, the
merits of the suggestion must have been
considerable, as the Company have thought
it but just to remunerate that gentleman’s
abilities and research, by an annuity
.bn 367.png
.pn +1
of £600., which has been lately raised to
£1000.
Several objections have been urged against the
adoption of New Harbour, of which some may
be cogent; but, from all I have ever heard on
the subject, it appears to me, that the reasons
given for rejection exist at least as formidably in
the western channels, where some of the advantages
offered by New Harbour are totally
wanting.
The time will probably arrive, when Saugur
Island, instead of being a desolate waste, inhabited
by various wild animals, may present a
rich expanse of agriculture, destined for the support
of an industrious population, inhabiting
those shores so favorably situated for extensive
commerce, and so highly protected by nature
against foreign incursion. The channels leading
past it, on either side, are narrow, and certainly
might be defended by a very small force against
a powerful fleet.
Many opinions, and some bold assertions, have
been offered regarding the Soonderbunds. Some
consider the immense wilderness that borders
the coast, to be of no great antiquity, and pretend,
that probably one hundred years would
be too much to allow for the duration of that
soil, whereon such stupendous forests of noble
trees are now to be seen.
That the whole of the country south of the
.bn 368.png
.pn +1
Ganges, from Bogwangolah to Saugur, and in the
other direction to Luckypore, &c., was formerly
covered by the ocean, may be readily believed,
both from the nature of the soil in general, and
from the various marine productions to be found
occasionally, when wells are dug to any considerable
depth.
The ancient city of Gour, of which only an
immense assemblage of ruins, covering full
thirty square miles, are to be seen, stood not
very far from Mauldah.
That able geographer, Major Rennell, states it
to have been the capital of Bengal 730 years before
Christ, and that it was deserted in consequence
of a pestilence; that it formerly stood on the
banks of the Ganges, from which it is now
distant nearly five miles; the river having, as is
very common in that quarter, changed its
course: the Mahanuddy, which passes within
two miles of it, is navigable throughout the
year. Many parts of Gour are now full twelve
miles from the Ganges.
The following extract from Major Rennell’s
Memoirs, pages 55-6, may serve to illustrate
the position I have to assume regarding the
Soonderbunds: he says, ‘Taking the extent of
the ruins of Gour at the most reasonable calculation,
it is not less than fifteen miles in
length, (extending along the old bank of the
Ganges,) and from two to three in breadth.
.bn 369.png
.pn +1
Several villages stand on part of its site: the remainder
is either covered with thick forests, the
habitations of tigers, and other beasts of prey, or
is become arable land, whose soil is chiefly composed
of brick-dust.
‘The principal ruins are a mosque, lined with
black marble, elaborately wrought, and two gates
of the citadel, which are strikingly grand and
lofty. These fabrics, and some few others,
appear to owe their duration to the nature of
their materials, which are less marketable, and
more difficult to separate, than those of the
ordinary brick buildings; and are transported to
Moorshadabad, Mauldah, and other places, for
the purpose of building. These bricks are of
the most solid texture of any I ever saw; and
have preserved the sharpness of their edges, and
the smoothness of their surfaces, through a
series of ages.
‘The situation of Gour was highly convenient
for the capital of Bengal and Bahar, as united
under one government; being nearly centrical
with respect to the populous parts of those provinces,
and near the junction of the principal
rivers that compose that extraordinary inland
navigation for which those provinces are formed;
and, moreover, secured by the Ganges, and other
rivers, on the only quarter from which Bengal
has any cause for apprehension.’
Here I feel at a loss; for the author has
.bn 370.png
.pn +1
evidently been deficient in that perspicuity
which characterizes his work; it does not
appear to me what quarter is meant in this instance;
the greater part of Bengal being divided
from Gour by that same river, the Ganges,
which is here described as a protection to Gour
against incursions from Bahar. If this be not
the Major’s meaning, I can find no other; at all
events, the passage is incongruous.
Setting, however, that matter at rest, as being
irrelevant on this occasion, I shall proceed to observe,
that throughout the Delta of the Ganges,
which forms an area of full twenty thousand
square miles, (it being nearly a right-angled
triangle, whose sides average about two hundred
miles,) we have not one vestige of remote
date!
It has, no doubt, been asserted by some travellers,
and I have heard several of the natives
declare, that, in some parts of the Soonderbunds,
ruins of great extent are to be seen. These are
said to be the remains of cities which formerly
flourished on the borders of the ocean, but were
abandoned in consequence of the depredations
of the Burmans, or Muggs, who inhabited the
country lying south of Chittagong, and who
have, within the last fifteen years, called to our
memory that such a nation was still in existence.
Admitting the existence of such reputed
.bn 371.png
.pn +1
ruins, we have no right to place them to the
account of the earlier ages; we have no records
of their existence; the whole of the details that
have hitherto been offered to the world, either
by native traditionists, or European surveyors,
give no account of any such fragments; while,
on the other hand, every presumption is in favor
of the whole Delta being comparatively modern.
Major Rennell, at page 347 of his Memoirs,
observes in a note, that ‘a glass of water taken
out of the Ganges, when at its height, yields
about one part in four of mud. No wonder
then that the subsiding waters should quickly
form a stratum of earth; or that the Delta
should encroach upon the sea.’ If we estimate
the course of the Ganges, (setting apart the
Barampooter,) at fifteen hundred miles, and
take its mean width at half a mile; which is,
indeed, reducing that magnificent flow of water
to a mere stream, we have then a surface of
seven hundred and fifty square miles, of which,
one fourth is said to be mud, or matter light
enough to be kept suspended by the violence of
the current. This should give nearly two hundred
square miles of soil.
The foregoing computation proves the Delta
to contain twenty thousand square miles;
therefore, if Major Rennell’s hypothesis be
correct, the whole of the Delta might have
.bn 372.png
.pn +1
been formed in one hundred years; taking the
depth of the river, when at its highest, to
be equal to the depth of the soil. But, if we
recollect that probably many fathoms of sea
were filled up by the encroachment that thus
took place, we may be correct in allowing ten
times that period, i.e. a thousand years, for
the completion, or, rather, for the gradual accumulation,
of so extensive an addition to the
terra firma of Asia.
At page 348, Major Rennell argues very
strongly, though unintentionally, perhaps, in
support of my hypothesis, that Gour formerly
stood on the borders of the ocean, and was,
probably the Tyre of Hindostan. He says, ‘As
a strong presumptive proof of the wandering of
the Ganges, from the one side of the Delta to
the other, I must observe, that there is no
appearance of virgin earth, between the Tipperah
Hills on the east, and the province of Burdwan
on the west; nor on the north till we arrive
at Dacca and Bauleah.’
Uniting all these points, and agreeing with
Major Rennell that the Ganges discharges, on a
medium, 180,000 cubic feet of water in a
second, we may easily imagine that the present
Delta has been formed by the sedimentary
portion propelled forward in constant succession,
until it gained the highest level to which the
annual inundation could raise it; after which,
.bn 373.png
.pn +1
the black mould on the surface must have been
produced by the constant accumulation of
vegetable matter that rotted thereon.
It is a curious, but well known, fact, that
from Sooty to that part of the Cossimbazar
Island which lies nearest to the tide’s way, the
whole is obliged to be preserved from inundation
by an embankment, called the poolbundy,
maintained at a very great and regular expence;
an obvious demonstration that the present
course of the Hooghly has not been settled
many centuries; for almost all rivers, long subject
to such overflows as those we witness in
Bengal, ultimately raise their banks, by an
annual deposit of matter, to such a height as
afterwards prevents their streams from passing
over into the adjacent country.
There can be little doubt, that the city of
Gour stood on a spot which, in very ancient
times, was washed by the sea; and we may,
without being accused of credulity in the extreme,
admit the great probability of the Ganges
having then debouched into the sinus, or bay, at
that same spot.
Nor should we doubt, that those sands,
which are, at this day, so dangerous to navigation,
from Balasore to Chittagong, will, at some
remote period, be encreased and raised, so as to
become, in the first instance, islands; and, ultimately,
parts of the continent; the present
.bn 374.png
.pn +1
channels serving for the courses of future rivers,
which, in so loose a soil, may, like the Ganges
in our times, be subject to changes of locality,
whenever the floods may prove so impetuous as
to open new beds, and cause the streams to be
diverted into them.
The Sunderbunds, whatever may be their date
or origin, present, at this day, a most inhospitable
aspect, and give, exteriorly, a feature to the
country which by no means corresponds with
the interior: they are, in truth, a hideous belt
of the most unpromising description, such as
could not fail to cause any stranger who might
be wrecked on that coast, and who should not
proceed beyond the reach of the tide, to pronounce
it ‘a country fit for the residence of neither
man nor beast.’
When Major Rennell remarked, ‘that they
furnish an inexhaustible supply of wood for boat
building;’ he might have added, ‘of timber for
ship building.’ Many very large vessels have
been launched from this quarter, but, no pains
having been taken to season the timber, it was
not to be expected they should prove so durable
as they might have been rendered by due precautions
in that particular. Nor is the wood
itself of the best quality for naval architecture;
for, though it is very strong, and to be bent with
facility to any necessary form, it, being extremely
subject to be worm-eaten, proves a great draw-back
.bn 375.png
.pn +1
on its being brought into more general use,
unless for such vessels as are intended to be
coppered: for such, the jarrool may answer, as
may also the soondry; both which abound in
every part of the Sunderbunds.
The whole coast, from Balasore to Chittagong,
has at times been occupied by a class of natives
called Molungies, who manufacture salt from the
sea-water. The produce of the several chokies,
or manufactories, is immensely valuable, as has
already been shewn, and suffices for the consumption
of the whole population of all the
Company’s dominions, besides what is exported
into those of the Nabob Vizier, &c. About
thirty-five years ago, salt used to be sold at a
rupee, or a rupee and a half, per factory maund
of 72lb.; which might average about one half-penny
per lb.; but, since the Company monopolized
the manufacture, and imposed a heavy
duty, the price of salt has gradually risen to
about four rupees per maund.
The importation of salt, by sea, is prohibited,
except under partial or temporary licences; but
it is brought from the mines to the northward of
Delhi in large quantities, though not of so good
a quality, it being generally very bitter, especially
the Salumbah, or more opaque rock-salt,
which is far less serviceable for curing meat than
the Samber; both these kinds are brought in
.bn 376.png
.pn +1
small prismatic masses, and, though in common
use among the natives of the upper provinces,
are never, except from necessity, allowed to
appear at the tables of Europeans, though
employed in their culinary preparations.
Salt is also obtained, but not of a prime quality,
by piling up large quantities of the sand
forming the beds of rivers, after the waters have
subsided into very narrow channels. On these
heaps water is poured in abundance, and, being
afterwards drained into reservoirs, the salt either
chrystalizes by solar heat, or by being boiled in
large iron pans, similar to those used for chrystalizing
sugar from the expressed juice of the cane.
In travelling by water, many points, totally
unheeded by European tourists, are necessarily
to be attended to previous to departure. I have
already warned my readers, that no furnished
house, no lodgings, no public vehicles, no inns,
and, in short, no preparation for the lodgment or
convenience of temporary sojourners, are to be
expected in any part of India; with the exception
of the taverns and punch-houses already
described. Therefore, when an excursion is to be
made by water, a budjrow must be hired, which
may commonly be effected either by what is called
‘teekah,’ or so much for the trip, according to
the distance, with some allowance for demurrage;
or the vessel may be hired at a certain monthly
.bn 377.png
.pn +1
sum; generally taken at ten rupees per oar.
Sometimes return-budjrows are to be had at a
cheaper rate: whichever way the bargain may
be made, the person hiring has nothing to do
with the pay, or provision, of the several men
employed in navigating the vessel.
The following Table of Allowances granted
by the Company to officers, and others, proceeding,
according to orders, from one station to
another, will be both useful to those who may
be proceeding to the East, and serve to give a
general idea of the periods required, in ordinary
seasons, taking the year round, for a boat’s
reaching her destination, and returning to the
place she quitted. The allowance likewise includes
whatever may be intended for not only
the budjrow, but for an attendant baggage-boat,
and a cook-boat.
.nf c
TABLE OF ALLOWANCE
FOR
BUDJROWS AND BOATS.
.nf-
.pm start_quote
.ta h:50 r:15 w=75%
| Sonaut Rupees
per Month.
To a Colonel | 930
To a Lieutenant-Colonel, Physician, General, or\
Chief Surgeon | 630
To a Major and Head Surgeon | 360
To a Captain, Pay-Master, Deputy Pay-Master,\
and Regimental Surgeon | 180
To a Subaltern, Hospital, or Regimental Mate | 100
To a Cadet | 80
To a Conductor | 50
.ta-
.pm end_quote
.bn 378.png
.pn +1
Officers are entitled to the allowance for budjrows
and boats only in the following instances:
viz.
When posted to corps on their first joining
the army.
When ordered to proceed, by water, upon any
duty.
When removed, without their own application,
to supply vacancies in the corps to which they
are removed.
When water conveyance is not practicable,
the difference of batta is to be drawn, calculating
from the day of appointment, and allowing
ten miles for daily progress.
Where no ascertained rate is given, officers
are to draw at the rate of ten miles against, and
fourteen with, the current, for each day’s progress.
The following may be considered the
general standard; by which extraordinary cases
are likewise governed.
.pm start_quote
.ta l:5 l:9 l:30 l:5 w=75%
From |Calcutta| to Berhampore is allowed for as | 1
|Ditto | to Monghyr | 1½
|Ditto | to Patna, or Dinapore | 2
|Ditto | to Buxar | 2¼
|Ditto | to Chunar or Benares | 2½
|Ditto | to Allahabad | 3
|Ditto | to Cawnpore | 3½
|Ditto | to Futty-Ghur | 4
|Ditto | to Dacca | 1
|Ditto | to Chittagong | 2
|Ditto | to Midnapore | \ ½
.ta-
.pm end_quote
.bn 379.png
.pn +1
It is proper to remark in this place, that a boat
may, at most seasons of the year, proceed to
Berhampore, (provided the river be open,) in
about seven or eight days. The distance by
water is nearly double that by land, owing to
the winding course of the river, which formerly
could competite with that passing under
Lucknow; which, owing to the mazes of its
course, received the name of ‘Goomty,’ or
winding.
Within the last twelve or fifteen years, many
of the narrow isthmuses have been cut through,
whereby the distance from Moorshadabad to
Calcutta has been reduced full twenty miles;
some yet require the aid of art, to perfect what
the hand of time seems preparing for the still further
abbreviating the passage by water: probably,
in the course of twenty years, the river
may be brought into a tolerable line; but, how
long it will remain so, is another consideration;
as the soil is every where, except about Rangamatty,
(i.e. the red soil,) a few miles below
Berhampore, so loose as to be totally unqualified
to restrain the violent current which prevails in
every part during four months in the year.
The passage to Chittagong can rarely be performed
in a common budjrow, a great part of it
being across the mouth of the Megna, indeed, in
an open sea, subject, at least, to very heavy
swells, if not to squalls, such as give much trouble
.bn 380.png
.pn +1
even to those who are on board substantial
sloops, and other vessels coming under the
description of sea-boats. However, during the
cold months, an adventurous manjy will sometimes
make the trip with his budjrow, provided
a handsome gratuity be offered on such a
hazardous occasion.
The best mode is to embark at Calcutta on
board one of the Chittagong traders, of which
some are commonly on the point of sailing, and
to make a sea trip at once, in a secure, and
tolerably pleasant manner. It is true, this mode
does not offer all the conveniences of a good
large budjrow; but that is balanced by the safety
and celerity with which the voyage is made. A
budjrow will rarely complete the trip to Chittagong
under three weeks; whereas, a coasting
sloop will commonly perform it in as many days,
after quitting the pilot, either in the northerly
or southerly monsoon; the coast being east,
with a very little southing.
After a budjrow has been offered for hire, it
will be but common prudence to send a carpenter
on board to search her bottom, and to place
a servant on board for a day and a night, to ascertain
how much water she may take in during
that time. Some of the best, in appearance,
are extremely rotten, and can only be kept afloat
by constant baling, in consequence either of the
depredations of worms, or of the number of
.bn 381.png
.pn +1
years they may have been built. Some are neat
and clean, others are filthy in the extreme;
some are supplied with good Venetians, lockers,
curtains outside the windows, &c., &c.; while
not a few, though not totally destitute of such
conveniences, offer them in a most miserable
state of wretchedness and of inutility. The roofs
of nine in ten do not keep out water.
It will, on every occasion, be indispensably
necessary to make memoranda of the terms on
which the budjrow, &c., may be taken; and to
obtain from the manjy a written agreement;
the want of which may prove unpleasant, either
in consequence of any misunderstanding, or
from any attempt that may be made to impose
upon such Europeans as may not be supposed to
have sufficient knowledge of the ordinary routine
of such affairs, to secure them from depredation.
The masts, sails, rigging, &c., of the vessel
should be carefully over-hauled; and, in particular,
great care should be taken that one or two
good ghoons, or track ropes, of sufficient length,
be on board; since a defect in this branch of
equipment will inevitably produce great delay,
and, in strong currents, subject the boat to imminent
danger.
Let it be remembered, that, whatever the number
of oars paid for may be, so many actual boatmen
there ought to be, exclusive of the manjy,
.bn 382.png
.pn +1
or steersman, and the goleah, or bowman: it is
a very common deception to count the latter in
among the rowers, because he sometimes sits to
an oar fitted out for him on the very prow of the
vessel, when there is no occasion for his standing
to throw the luggy, or bamboo-pole, whereby
the boat is kept clear of banks, shoals,
stumps, &c.
When an engagement is made of the teekah,
or job-kind, the manjy will, for his own sake,
endeavor to get away as speedily as possible,
and will ordinarily make sure of a good crew, in
order that his money may be the sooner earned;
but, when paid by the month, there will be no
end to excuses, delays, and evasions: the dandies
will generally be wanting in number, and
their quality be very indifferent.
The best mode, on such occasions, is to apply
to the police, which, under proper circumstances
of established criminality, will put a peon (or
messenger) on board, at the expence of the delinquent,
and make such a change in the posture
of affairs as cannot fail to please the employer.
This is a safe and efficacious mode of proceeding;
whereas, when justice is taken into the
hands of the person hiring the boat, and that
abuse and blows are dealt out, under the hope
of gaining the point, the grounds of complaint
are laid, and the dandies, so far from doing their
duty, will either abscond wholly, or secrete
.bn 383.png
.pn +1
themselves in such manner as effectually to
impose an embargo.
I do not mean to say, that sometimes a recourse
to the manual may not be advisable, or
even peremptorily necessary; but such must be
adopted with extreme caution, and with such a
mixture of resolution and conciliation, as may
produce the desired effect, without establishing
a character for brutality, or unnecessary harshness.
If, during the trip, occasion for complaint
should arise, it is best to refer the matter
to any persons in office, whether native or European,
who may be within a suitable distance.
The manjies have an insuperable antipathy to
this mode of proceeding, because it deprives
them of all grounds for justification, or representation;
the want of which, in the hearing of
an European magistrate, speedily induces to
their corporal punishment; while, in the estimation
of a cutwal, or chief of a village, it is sure
to subject them to some pecuniary loss, whether
by fine, by deduction from the sum to be paid
as hire, or by having to maintain one or more
peons, according to the nature of the offence.
Most budjrows have two apartments, exclusive
of an open veranda in front; the latter is on
a level with the dining apartment, but the chamber,
which is more towards the stern, rises one
or two steps above their level, in consequence
of the form of the vessel’s stern: beyond all
.bn 384.png
.pn +1
there is usually a small privy, which, being still
more elevated, is ascended by other steps.
As the chamber contracts considerably towards
the after-part of its floor, it will be necessary to
ascertain whether a small cot (i.e. a bedstead)
can stand in that part of the budjrow, without
inconvenience; as also whether the height, between
the floor and the roof, may admit of the
bed-posts being erected. If the space should
not allow them to be elevated, they must be
unshipped, either by taking off their hinges, or
by drawing them forth from their sockets, and
the curtains must be suspended from hooks,
nails, &c., driven for that purpose into the
beams that support the roof.
Though floating on a large river, whose waters
are celebrated for their virtues and purity
by the whole population of Hindostan, it will,
nevertheless, be indispensably necessary to take
on board a good large g’oulah, or jar, which
may be lashed to the mast, and be used as a
depot for such water as may be intended for
culinary purposes, or for beverage. In a few
hours it will have settled thoroughly, and should
then be drawn off as required into smaller
vessels, called kedjeree-pots by Europeans, but
by the natives gurrahs.
Whence the former designation originated I
never could learn, but conclude it resulted
either from the supplies of crockery furnished
.bn 385.png
.pn +1
to our shipping at Kedjeree, or from the very
common circumstance of that preparation of
rice, split peas, &c., called kitchurry, which
may often be seen boiling, wholesale, in vessels
of this description, for the supply of a dozen, or
more, of dandies, &c.
The forepart of every budjrow is decked, and
furnished with two hatchways, with appropriate
coverings: the whole of the part under the deck,
which reaches from the veranda to the stern,
is generally considered by the manjy as a privilege,
of which he rarely fails to avail himself,
when it is possible to render the trip a trading
voyage. Against this too much precaution
cannot be adopted; for not only will the budjrow
be so heavily laden as to draw more water,
(an object of considerable importance,) but to
track with far greater difficulty, and to leak very
abundantly.
If any contraband trade can be carried on
with tolerable safety, it is usually in this manner;
because, owing to the general deference
paid by the custom-house officers, and chokey-peons,
in every part of the country, to European
gentlemen, and to their equipages, few, or
none, will attempt to search a budjrow under
hire: the facility with which goods can be
landed, is such as to obviate, almost totally, any
danger to be apprehended in the performance of
that part of the adventure.
.bn 386.png
.pn +1
Government has, it is true, placed a number of
checks on this kind of fraud; but, unhappily,
it is out of its power to go so far into the remedy
as would put a total stop to illicit commerce,
without subjecting their own servants, of whatever
rank, to the intrusive, and ultimately insolent,
researches of those natives by whom they
should, on every occasion, be treated with the
utmost respect and consideration. It is inconceivable
with what secresy, and caution, the
manjies act on such occasions. An instance is
within my knowledge, of a gentleman hiring a
budjrow at Patna, to proceed to the Presidency,
but it was in vain that he importuned the manjy,
day after day, and hour after hour, to complete
his crew, and to have all in readiness for embarkation:
at length, all was adjusted, and the vessel
proceeded in high style.
The gentleman was unaccountably drowsy,
and often wondered at the rapidity with which
he seemed to be making his passage, but was
not displeased to find himself so speedily floated
towards the place of destination: it was in
vain that he endeavored to prevent the manjy
from stopping at Chandernagore, a French settlement,
about twenty-two miles from Calcutta;
when, to his great surprize, he saw several
boxes of opium, which had been concealed in
various parts of the budjrow, and particularly
under the floors, handed out to some sircars who
.bn 387.png
.pn +1
were at the g’haut, or landing-place, anxiously
awaiting her arrival.
However unpleasant the above-mentioned cargo
might have proved, it cannot be compared with
the truly offensive practice common among all
the boat-men of Hindostan, of cutting such fish
as they may purchase, catch, or steal, into slices,
and hanging them over the quarters to become
sun-dried. This custom should never be tolerated
on any account; not only because the effluvia
are cruelly distressing, but, that, wherever it is
allowed to obtain, all the rats are sure to be
attracted from whatever boats, or banks, may
come in contact with the budjrow: once in,
Old Nick cannot get them out; except by
emptying the vessel completely, and fumigating
her with sulphur; or by sinking her for a while,
so as to drown the vermin, of all descriptions,
that harbour in the numberless recesses, chinks,
&c., to be found in every quarter of an old
budjrow.
When a single gentleman is intent on proceeding
on the most economical and expeditious
plan, he will find it best not to have even a cook-boat
in his suite; but should confine himself
entirely to whatever convenience his budjrow
may afford. If this plan is acted upon, the
several boxes, &c., may be arranged within the
cabins, or, at the utmost, under the deck; taking
care, however, to debar the dandies from
.bn 388.png
.pn +1
visiting that part of the vessel, by placing stout
battens, or bamboo-laths, across, by way of confining
them to the fore hatchway, down which
they ordinarily keep their cloaths, fire-wood,
&c., &c., and, occasionally, make a choolah, or
hearth and fire-place, of mud, whereon to cook
the victuals of the crew; an operation performed
by one of the dandies, who, on that account, is
exempted from all ordinary duties, and who is
generally capable of serving up an admirably
well-savored curry.
The after-part of the hold is commonly spacious
enough to hold a tent of ordinary dimensions;
but it may become a question how far it
would be prudent to put camp equipage in the
way of the rats, which would, probably, for the
sake of shelter in the vicinity of the culinary
operations, soon burrow into the hearts of the
packages, and do inconceivable damage. If,
however, no other place can be allotted for the
reception of a tent, and the weather be such as
not to warrant its being stowed upon the poop,
no alternative is left, and the risk of destruction,
or, at least, of very serious injury, must be met
with resignation.
Though not indispensably necessary, a tent
of some kind will be found extremely convenient,
when proceeding by water to any distant
station, especially during the hot season. As
the boat-men usually come to about sun-set, or,
.bn 389.png
.pn +1
perhaps, a little earlier, if any favorable situation,
or the proximity of some large town, should
invite, a small tent may easily be taken ashore,
and pitched on the elevated bank, where the
freshness of the air, and the wide range of prospect,
prove a most comfortable relief to a person
who, during the day, may have been obliged to
remain under the heated roof of a cabin, whereof
the windows were closed to keep out the sun,
hot winds, and flying sand.
Many gentlemen have one small boat employed
chiefly in going forward with such a convenience,
and which, after the bed, &c. may be
shipped at day-break on board the budjrow, that
no delay may arise in departing, waits to receive
the baggage left on the spot, with which it proceeds
at such a rate as soon makes up for the
detention: a boat of this kind is extremely useful
in many instances, but especially in procuring
supplies from an opposite bank, for going to
or from shore in shoal water, for towing a budjrow
in strong waters, for carrying out an anchor,
or rope, to warp by, &c., &c.
Where only a budjrow and such a small boat
are employed, the latter generally has a choolah,
or hearth, &c., prepared within it under a small
thatch. She commonly has to carry the proper
supply of dry fire-wood; that obtained on the
way being, with few exceptions, green, and
causing the viands to acquire a very smoky, unpleasant
.bn 390.png
.pn +1
flavor. The poultry are also usually
conveyed on the thatch of the cook-boat, in
small tappahs, or cages, made of split bamboos:
this part of the stock may consist of a dozen of
fowls, with a few ducks, and a goose or two;
and, occasionally, is accompanied by one or two
milch goats, which, being supplied with foliage
cut for that purpose, during the day, and being
sent to some verdant spot when the boat comes
to in the evening, rarely fail to furnish milk
enough, of a very superior quality, for the morning
and evening tea.
The traveller must not expect to be supplied
with beef, mutton, or veal, as he may proceed,
in any part of the country, except at military or
civil stations: there he may, perhaps, be enabled
to purchase a sufficient supply of meat to make
some variety in his diet as he passes from one
station to another; but, unless in some very
particular situations, he must content himself
with poultry of various kinds, but chiefly chickens,
and with kids, of which the meat is excellent.
He may, at some of the principal towns where
Mussulmans reside, here and there fall in with a
butcher, who can furnish a joint of kussy (i.e.
cut-goat); or he may perchance pick up a tolerable
sheep, which may, at all events, serve for
gravy, and supply his pointers and spaniels with
two or three days’ substantial provision.
The mention of cutting up a sheep for such
.bn 391.png
.pn +1
purposes, may appear extraordinary to the European
reader, but it must be recollected, that
such sheep are rarely worth more than two shillings,
that in some parts the country swarms
with them, and that their wool is not valuable,
owing to its being lank, coarse, harsh, and not
of a strong fibre: it is, indeed, more like that
hair which grows upon many horses that are
turned out during the winter, and comes off by
handfuls as the spring advances.
The boats employed for carrying baggage are
of two kinds; woolachs and patellies: the former
are built in the lower provinces, with round bottoms,
and often draw much water; the latter
are chiefly of up-country build, have flat bottoms,
and are clinkered; this construction suits
them admirably to the shallows, which, after the
rainy season, abound in all the rivers beyond the
tide’s way, and especially at a distance from the
sea.
Some of the woolachs used by the more opulent
native merchants are capable of bearing
from fifteen hundred to three thousand maunds,
(i.e. from eighty to a hundred and twenty tons,)
but their medium may be taken at from four to
eight hundred maunds, which is also the general
measurement of patellies in the common employ
of grain-merchants, &c.: many are to be seen of
full two thousand maunds, but such are calculated
for the great rivers only; not but that in
.bn 392.png
.pn +1
the channels abundant depth of water may be
found, so deep, indeed, that several ships, of five
hundred tons burthen, have been built at Patna,
which is, by water, six hundred miles from the
sea; but those channels are so crooked, and
the currents so strong, as to render it very difficult
for the ordinary number of dandies, proportioned
to the tonnage, to navigate such
unwieldy boats with safety and expertness,
The best size for a baggage-boat to attend
upon a budjrow, especially in proceeding against
the stream, may be from three hundred to five
hundred maunds: observing, that the patelly is
by far better calculated for shallow water, and
for the conveyance of horses, than a woolach;
but, being so low in the water, the former is
rather subject to be swamped in rough water,
and, owing to its construction, is very apt to
become hog-backed, and, ultimately, to give
way in the middle; an accident which seldom
or never happens to the latter.
When horses are to be carried in boats, as is
very commonly done, it becomes necessary to
make a platform, at about a foot from the bottom
of the boat, consisting of brush-wood, mats,
and soil: the thwarts being rarely a yard asunder,
one must be taken out to make a stall of
sufficient width; therefore, if three or four
horses are put on board the same boat, a corresponding
number of thwarts must be withdrawn.
.bn 393.png
.pn +1
When the animals are about to be embarked,
the thatch opposite the stall must be raised
high enough to allow a horse to leap in without
danger, from the bank.
This operation is often attended with considerable
difficulty; for some horses are extremely
averse to enter upon the solid platform
of a large substantial ferry-boat, such as that at
Ghyretty, even when placed on a level therewith,
by means of a fixed, or moveable pier.
When, therefore, it is considered how many
obstacles seem to oppose the admission of a
horse into a covered boat, when, probably, he is
standing above his knees in water, and has to
rise, under every disadvantage, over the boat’s
gunwhale, it will not appear surprizing that many
hold out for hours, notwithstanding every effort
on the part of the syces, (or grooms,) and that a
large portion are severely lamed in the attempt.
It is curious to observe how very quiet and
temperate horses become after embarkation!
In such a situation, they seem to forget that
wonderful propensity they invariably display
when on shore, to attack each other, even when
at a considerable distance; but, though parted
by only a few feet, they become so tractable
while in a boat, that their natures seem to
undergo a complete change.
Notwithstanding this periodical, or, rather,
local, timidity, it will be proper to secure that
.bn 394.png
.pn +1
part of the boat’s side against which a horse
may be able to kick; many instances having
occurred of fiery steeds driving their hooves
through the planks, which are not always very
sound, and, even if undecayed, are generally by
far too thin to resist so severe an operation:
more than one patelly has foundered outright,
with all the contents, in consequence of such an
accident; the best mode of preventing which, is,
by fastening a quantity of jow (an aquatic
species of fern,) to the inside, as a lining,
whereby the planks may be secured from
injury.
When a vessel is tracked against the stream,
it is usual for the dandies, or boatmen, to go
ashore, each furnished with a club of bamboo,
about two feet in length, to which a piece of
strong cord is fastened at one end; at the same
time, the ghoon, or track-rope, is veered out from
a pulley in the mast head, or from a block lashed
thereto, to as great a length as the situation may
demand; commonly, from about seventy to a
hundred and fifty yards may suffice, though,
in very shoal water, mixed with deeps, or, where
the ground is foul, even a greater length may be
requisite.
The ghoon is about two inches round, and is
made of white rope well laid: if made of tarred
rope, it would prove too heavy, and oppose
great resistance, by its want of elasticity, to the
.bn 395.png
.pn +1
exertions of the dandies, each of whom, fixing
the end of his cord to it, and resting the bamboo
club over his shoulder, so that it may act, in
some measure, as a lever, proceeds at an easy
pace, his body leaning well forward, each following
at about four feet behind the other.
The foremost at the track-rope has a great
advantage over his followers; he not being
subject to the numerous checks and vibrations
occasioned by the frequent impediments, whether
bushes, banks, masts of other vessels, &c.,
which operate very forcibly on those whose
cords are attached to that part of the rope in his
rear.
The number of dandies at a track-rope may be
too many, as well as too few; except when a
boat can keep close to the shore, and the ghoon
makes but a very small angle from the line of
her progress: then, all the power that can be
given certainly proves efficient; but, when the
angle between the boat’s direction and the rope
becomes considerable, it is evident the whole
labor falls on a very few of the leading dandies;
in fact, all but those few are then compelled to
liberate their cords from the ghoon, otherwise
they must be inevitably dragged out into the
stream, unless those cords were many fathoms,
instead of only four or five feet, in length.
The greater part of the trading boats use a
different apparatus for tracking; in them, each
.bn 396.png
.pn +1
dandy is supplied with a fine cord, about as
thick as a swan’s quill, made of a fine kind of long
grass called moonje, which, when wetted, and
twisted into this kind of tackle, becomes firm
and elastic; though it will not answer for
cordage in general. Each dandy has about
seventy yards of line, the inner end of which
fastens to a stout rope, reeved, the same as the
ghoon, at the mast-head, and long enough to be
let out amply where requisite.
The other end of the line is coiled up by each
dandy respectively, who fastens his bamboo
club by its cord, at such part of the moonje line
as may be let out; generally a small quantity of
coil being reserved, which hangs down either
over each dandy’s breast or shoulder. By this
means, each man tracks separately, and cannot
be idle without the manjy instantly detecting
him; the several lines form so many rays from
the mast-head, and are capable, when equally
strained, to bear an immense burthen.
Nothing can be more unpleasant than having
to pass a ghaut where numbers of boats are
lying: on such an occasion, a man is sent up
to the mast-head of each, in succession, for the
purpose of passing the ghoon; which, when
liberated from one, swings on to another, causing
a severe shock to the hinder dandy of the tracking
party. Some use a very simple device for
passing the ghoon over their mast-heads: this
.bn 397.png
.pn +1
consists merely of a kind of fork, made by
tying the end of the ghoon, of each vessel respectively,
then at rest, to a long bamboo, about
a quarter of the length down. The ghoon
being pulled, the bamboo is raised, and carries
with it that of the boat in motion: a man
then slips the latter over the mast-head with
great facility.
It is not always that the people on board
boats, laying at ghauts, will turn out to pass the
ghoon; on which occasions, words are rarely of
much avail. I always found that a pellet-bow,
which sends clay-balls to about a hundred yards
distance with considerable force, produced an
instantaneous effect; the first shot rattling
against the matted sides of a vessel’s interior,
rarely failing to cause wondrous activity on the
part of her crew; though, now and then, it has
been necessary to repeat the operation, before the
desired effect could be produced.
I strongly recommend to all gentlemen travelling
by water, that they insist on the manjies
of their several boats carrying a small flag, of
some obvious distinction, at their mast-heads:
this prevents them from lying to, and concealing
their vessels amidst a forest of masts, as
they are very apt to do, when intent upon a
clandestine trading voyage. Besides, as in the
course of a day’s tracking, and especially when
sailing, it is very common for a budjrow to get
.bn 398.png
.pn +1
many miles a-head, such a device then becomes
a guide as to the propriety of coming to for the
night, or, intermediately, for dinner, &c.
The number of miles which can be run over
in the course of a day in a budjrow, will necessarily
vary according to circumstances, guided
by the quantity of water in the river, the direction
and force of the wind, and the competency
of the crew. I cannot do better, in this place,
than offer the words of Major Rennell. At
page 360 of his Memoirs, he says, ‘From the
beginning of November, to the middle, or latter
end of May, the usual rate of going with the
stream, is forty miles in a day of twelve hours;
and, during the rest of the year, from fifty to
seventy miles. The current is strongest while
the waters of the inundation are draining off;
which happens, in part, in August and September.’
In a former part, I remarked that the rivers
generally rise a few inches in May; which is to
be attributed to the melting of the snow on
those hills where the Ganges and Barampooter
have their source. Both those rivers, which
have their rise at the base, but on opposite sides,
of the same mountain, and, after separating to
full twelve hundred miles asunder, unite, and
form that immense volume of water called the
Megna, receive a supply from the same quarter,
and at the same time: we cannot, however,
.bn 399.png
.pn +1
expect the force of their currents to be encreased
much before the rains are fairly set in,
which may be, generally, about the 10th of
June, when their waters do, indeed, roll impetuously;
so much, that many a boat has
proceeded from Patna to Monghyr, a distance
of one hundred measured miles by land, and
full one hundred and twenty by water, between
day-break and sun-set.
Major Rennell adds, ‘Seventeen to twenty
miles a day, according to the ground, and the
number of impediments, is the greatest distance
that a large budjrow can be towed against the
stream, during the fair season; and, to accomplish
this, the boat must be drawn through
the water, at the rate of four miles and a half
per hour, for twelve hours. When the waters
are high, a greater progress will be made, notwithstanding
the encreased velocity of the
current; because, the filling of the river-bed
gives many opportunities of cutting off angles
and turnings; and, sometimes, even large windings,
by going through creeks. As the wind,
at this season, blows upwards,’ (i.e. against
the current,) ‘in most of the rivers, opportunities
of using the sail frequently occur.’
It must not be supposed, from the foregoing,
that the boat actually makes a progress of four
miles and a half within the hour: far from it,
the dandies rarely walk more than two miles in
.bn 400.png
.pn +1
that time, but the velocity of the current being
taken into account, would shew, that, if a log
were to be heaved, the difference between the
log and the boat’s advance would give the
result alluded to by the Major, whose general
correctness cannot be too much admired.
In using the sail, infinite changes take place;
sometimes it is full, then again close-hauled,
and, perhaps, ultimately, lowered on a sudden,
according as the course of the river may change;
and this some twenty or thirty times within the
day. But when the reaches lie tolerably fair,
that opportunity offers, as sometimes happens
for a whole day together, and that the wind is
brisk in favor, a budjrow will run off from four
to six miles within the hour. The river is
often so low as to render the navigation very
tedious, even under all the above favorable circumstances,
by forcing the manjy to abide by
the strong deep waters, and to wind in among
the sands, which cause the channel to change
its direction very frequently.
During the rains, and especially in the cold
months, travelling by water is extremely
pleasant with the stream; but, whatever facilities
may be afforded, in any shape, I cannot
say that any trip upwards, at whatever season,
afforded me the smallest gratification. What
with tracking, getting aground, remaining long
among eddies, in which human carcases were
.bn 401.png
.pn +1
floating in all the various stages of putrefaction,
the dust flying, &c., &c., nothing but ennui, or
impatience, can reasonably be expected.
Here and there a walk may be taken; but he
who ventures ashore must be watchful to
embark before the budjrow may be obliged to
put far out for the purpose of passing some
endless shallow; otherwise, he may have to
walk under a vertical sun, through bushes, or
over ploughed, or muddy, lands, and among
ravines, for many an hour, before the opportunity
many offer for getting on board: to crown
the whole, he may, perhaps, come to some
nullah, or small stream, over which no conveyance
is to be had, either by bridge or boat!
My zeal for bringing home a few birds, or a
hare, has often decoyed me into scrapes of this
kind, and caused me to utter many an imprecation
against the river, for winding, the manjy,
for going on, and my own folly, for subjecting
myself to such unpleasant circumstances. I
must freely confess, that, in this respect, ‘experience
did not give wisdom;’ for, after full a
thousand and one such disappointments, I felt,
at the last, just as eager as ever, to silence such
chuckores (a species of grouse) as had the insolence
to crow within my hearing!
The navigation of the large rivers is rather
more hazardous than among those of less
breadth. When it is considered, that the
.bn 402.png
.pn +1
Ganges runs for upwards of a thousand miles
through a country nearly level, and whose undulations
are scarcely perceptible, except in a few
places where the hills come down to the water’s
edge, as at Sickregully, Pointee, Colgong, Chunar,
&c., it must appear obvious that but little
shelter can be expected from these squalls, called
‘north-westers,’ which, from the end of February
until the setting in of the rains, occur almost
daily, and blow with considerable violence.
Even when under a high bank, it will require
much care, and good tackle, to prevent a budjrow
from being blown out into the middle, where,
if she is top-heavy, as is too often the case, and
the proper means be not taken to keep her head
to the wind, she will stand a chance of being
overset.
Fortunately, the approach of a squall is always
strongly indicated by the black appearance
above the horizon, and by the distant lightnings:
when such are sufficiently characterized to leave
little doubt of the storm’s passing that way,
shelter should be sought in some creek, or under
some high bank, of firm appearance, where the
budjrow should be well secured by hawsers,
carried out, and made fast to, substantial stakes
driven into the ground by means of large malls,
with all which every boat should be amply provided.
Luggies, (or bamboo-poles,) ought to
be carried out on the lee-side, for the purpose
.bn 403.png
.pn +1
of resisting the wind, and causing the upper
parts of the vessel to bear up duly against the
severe gusts which commonly usher in the gale.
If the vessel is on a lee-shore, the luggies
must, of course, be between her and the bank,
to prevent her from bumping against it, and the
anchor should be carried out to windward, into
deep water, to keep her from being forced
ashore: a danger particularly to be apprehended
on long shelving sands; where many a well-conditioned
boat has had her bottom beat out,
by the force with which the surges, coming across
an expanse of perhaps a mile, or more, have
dashed her against the hard sand.
Such situations are peculiarly hazardous, and
ought to be avoided most carefully: the misfortune
is, that, from eagerness to get forward,
and from the hope that a north-wester may be
either moderate, or pass another way, folks, in
general, keep pushing on, and allow many a
secure asylum to be passed very imprudently!
Those who have experienced the effects of a
violent squall about Sheerness, may be proper
judges of what is to be expected from a most
furious gale, which often continues for an hour,
or more, in a river which may be said generally
to flow between banks full two miles asunder,
and which are, in most parts, from three to five,
in some, full seven, miles apart!
About Bengal, especially in the Sunderbund-passages,
.bn 404.png
.pn +1
decoits, or water-robbers, are sometimes
numerous. These often assemble in
fleets, composed of long narrow boats, rowing
from twelve to thirty oars, or paddles, at pleasure,
and carrying from thirty to sixty, or seventy,
men. Sometimes their fleets have been so formidable,
and have so effectually put a stop to
all commerce, as to call the attention of government,
and to demand the presence of a strong
establishment, backed by liberal offers of rewards,
before the rivers could be resorted to in safety.
Between Dacca and Backergunge, among the
islands formed by the several minor branches of
the Ganges, and by the innumerable creeks,
with which the banditti are perfectly familiar, it
has often been impossible for any boat to make
its way, even for a few miles, without being
boarded by these decoits.
As to rewards, little good is to be expected
from them; the system adopted by the marauders
is such as to render abortive any lures of that
description. Where all participate, all will be
found faithful to the cause, whether virtue or
vice be the leader; and, where localities are such
as to afford perfect security from the common
run of pursuers, and where numbers render the
association too formidable to admit any hope of
success on the part of small detachments; in
such instances, rewards can rarely produce the
smallest benefit.
.bn 405.png
.pn +1
Wherever a boat, or even a fleet, may come
to for the night, it will be indispensably necessary
to keep a sharp look-out against thieves,
who, appertaining to the several villages in the
neighbourhood, rarely fail to assemble, during
the night, under some bold chief, and to make
an attempt to plunder by main force. It is
scarcely to be credited to what a height this
daring species of robbery has been, at times,
carried. Were no other occasion existing, this
would amount to ample cause for obtaining, if
possible, a guard of sepoys, for the purpose of
protecting the boats; but, strange to say, it is
sometimes necessary to compel the villagers to
sell their poultry, &c., to passengers, both by
land and by water, although not simply a liberal,
but an exorbitant remuneration is offered.
This does not proceed from unwillingness to
make money, nor to sell the article in question,
but merely from a spirit of opposition which pervades
a large portion of the native population,
who are often too adverse to contribute to the
comfort, or, more properly, to the existence, of
Europeans. It must seem curious that our
countrymen are allowed to reside among a people
of such a disposition, so far out-numbering, and
possessed of such easy means of extirpating, us,
with very little previous arrangement.
In saying this, I do not mean to accuse the
natives of India of being so debased, so immoral,
.bn 406.png
.pn +1
or so vindictive, as they have been represented
by many gentlemen, especially some divines
who have lately returned from the East, and
whose opinions breathe by no means the spirit of
that sublime religion they would coerce the natives
to adopt. Taking all points into consideration,
and viewing the nature of the country conjointly
with the nature of their laws, and of
their former government, I think we have by far
more to admire than to censure, in a race of
people, who, notwithstanding some highly remarkable
instances of depravity, may be classed
among the most innocent, and most industrious,
of worldly inhabitants!!!
This is saying much, but not too much, of a
nation whose government absolutely tolerates
thieving as a regular profession, and which has
been known to make a very free use of the talents
of its subjects for the purposes of obtaining plunder,
or of gratifying its pique and resentment.
I much fear, that, if such were the case with us,
and that, if, instead of being ruled by a virtuous
king, we were placed under a buccaneering
monarch, we should by no means find so many
pleas of extenuation as the natives of Hindostan
can justly boast!
The truth of this position, in itself so reasonable,
is made more fully evident by the obvious
difference subsisting between the Company’s
and the Vizier’s dominions. In the former, the
.bn 407.png
.pn +1
depredations committed are always nocturnal,
and of that description to be expected under the
foregoing circumstances; in the latter, the speculation
is infinitely more open, more systematic,
and more extensive.
That considerable amelioration must have
taken place under our government, is to be
proved, from the safety with which travellers may
proceed by land throughout the country, when
compared with the extreme danger attendant
upon a journey through any part of the Vizier’s
territory; wherein almost every well presents
the horrid spectacle of the mangled bodies of
those who become victims to the sanguinary
hordes of robbers that infest every part of that
prince’s dominions.
On this account, every gentleman proceeding
by land, from one to another station, should
make a point of obtaining a small guard of a naik
and four, or even of two, sepoys, whose presence
will generally prove a considerable check on the
adventurous disposition of the villagers in that
quarter. This precaution will not, however,
alone be sufficient; application should be made
to the jemmadar, or head-borough, of each village
where the party may encamp, for a certain
number of chokey-dars, (watchmen,) proportioned
to the number of tents, horses, &c., and the
whole of the property of every description should
be nominally put under the charge of the men
.bn 408.png
.pn +1
thus furnished, observing, that the regular pay,
which may be from four to six pice, or halfpence,
for each, should be punctually paid to the jemmadar
when the camp breaks up the next morning,
and that every item is found to be in a state
of safety.
When coolies (i.e. porters) are wanted, to
carry the beds, tables, &c, of a party, application
should be made, in like manner, to the
jemmadar; and when, after arrival at the next
stage, they may be discharged, it will be proper
to be attentive to the regular payment of every
individual thus furnished; otherwise, the servants
to whom it may be entrusted to discharge
them, will generally withhold a large portion, or
even the whole, of what may have been ordered.
By thus regularly attending to matters of this
description, the villagers will come forward with
more alacrity; though, it must be confessed,
they are generally very unwilling to engage as
coolies; which is not to be wondered at, since
the jemmadars generally extort from them at
least half their earnings on such occasions: the
evil being incurable, as matters now stand, must
be borne as gracefully as our feelings may allow;
and we must remain content with the reflection
of doing justice ourselves, though we know for
certain that our liberality, in the end, flows into
a wrong channel.
When practicable, it is highly expedient to
.bn 409.png
.pn +1
obtain from the European collector’s office, or
even from any of the natives under his immediate
authority, who may be deputed to, or resident
at, such places as lie near the road, a rhahwaunah,
or pass-port, wherein it should be set
forth, that, whatever necessaries, or coolies, or
chokey-dars, or dowraws, (guides,) may be requisite,
should be furnished by such jemmadars of
villages as should be called upon for supplies
of the above description. This always ensures
respect and attention, and causes the whole of
the persons, to whom it is addressed, to be
vigilant in the discharge of their duties, lest
complaints should be preferred to the collector,
who would speedily summon them to his court,
and punish them in a suitable manner.
However audacious the thieves, whether
house-breakers, or collectors on the highways,
may be, they very rarely make an immediate
attack on Europeans. This, no doubt, proceeds
from the sense they entertain of the importance
we attach to the safety of our countrymen, the
murderer of whom would be assuredly detected,
and suffer the full sentence of the law.
Besides, all the people of Hindostan know,
that, with the exception of watches, which, for
want of pawn-brokers, and accomplices skilled
in the melting of metals, are of no use to the
predatory tribe, Europeans never carry about
with them any thing valuable. No gentleman
.bn 410.png
.pn +1
ever has money about him; though his servants
sometimes have, in their waists, a few rupees,
intended for such disbursements as cannot be
delayed without inconvenience.
Hence, the boxes, &c., of gentlemen, are
generally aimed at, because the cash and valuables
are contained in them; for the same
reason, the most confidential servants are
most commonly selected as objects of attack.
Your true Hindostanee robber is, in general,
very active, robust, and capable of great deception:
he will patrole about a tent, during a dark
night, in the manner of a dog, or of a jackal;
the howl of which he can, perhaps, imitate so
well as to deceive the sentries, and throw them
completely off their guard.
If allowed to approach a tent, he will select
that side where several servants are asleep under
the fly, or awning, and gradually insinuate himself
into the interior, either by passing under
the walls, or between the overlaps; if such
cannot be easily effected, he draws his choory,
(knife,) which is sharpened for the occasion,
and makes a slit in the cloth, or canvas, large
enough to pass his body through, when, in the
most cautious manner, and retaining his breath
as much as possible, he gropes about for those
articles which, during the day-time, he had seen
deposited in some particular part of the tent,
and, after making an opening large enough for
.bn 411.png
.pn +1
his purpose, or by opening one of the doors, he
watches the opportunity for escaping with his
booty.
The attempt to seize a thief under such circumstances,
is extremely hazardous, and ought
to be strongly reprehended. Being perfectly
naked, and having the body highly lubricated
with oil, it is impossible to grasp him in any
part; while, on the other hand, he must be expected
to use his knife very freely, under the
determination of escaping.
I recollect a curious circumstance that
happened in 1783, at Bankypore, when the
tent of a staff-officer was entered, during the
night, by a fellow of this description, who, it
being moon-light, and one part of the tent only
closed by a cheek, was discovered by the gentleman
as he lay in bed. Seeing his property on
the move, he sprang up to disengage a hog-spear
that was tied up to that pole of the
marquee which was nearest the bed; but the
thief got the start of him, by seizing the officer’s
sword, which was suspended by a hook that
buckled on to the other pole. The adventurer
being thus armed, prevented the gentleman from
getting possession of the spear: after one or two
menacing flourishes, he darted out of the tent,
sword in hand, and was speedily beyond the
reach of pursuit.
Another very ludicrous circumstance occurred
.bn 412.png
.pn +1
some years antecedent to the above. A
gentleman who inhabited a small bungalow, on
the banks of a river, and who was very ill of
that complaint ‘the liver,’ for which he was
under a course of mercury, perceived, in the
dusk of the evening, a thief prowling about the
apartment in which he was sitting. The fellow
was extremely industrious: and threw a number
of articles, not even sparing the bed-linen,
out at a window that stood open. The
gentleman affected to take no notice, but
resolved, when the thief should follow his
booty, to take him by surprize, while in the
act of collecting them from under the
window.
This was, by no means, an imprudent resolution,
as it appeared probable that the rogue
might be secured, at the same time that the property
should be recovered. At length, after
having thrown out whatever was convenient to
his purpose, and having peeped out of the window,
the thief made suddenly towards the gentleman,
and snatched from his head a beautiful
shawl, with which he skipped out of the
window.
This feat demanded instant action; the gentleman
called lustily for his servants, who,
awaking from their slumbers, ran to obey the
vociferated summons, and were just in time to
see a small dingy (or boat) pulling away to the
.bn 413.png
.pn +1
opposite bank, with the goods, the thief, and his
accomplices, on board!
All who travel by land, should be on their
guard never to allow jugglers, or show-men, of
whatever description, to enter their tents;
which they will endeavor to do, under pretence
of shewing off their mummeries, with
the intention of ascertaining the posture of whatever
moveables may be within. In this, they
are sometimes mistaken; it being usual to have
all boxes, camp-baskets, &c., assembled about
the foot of the tent-pole, at night, and to secure
them by means of a chain passing through their
respective handles, &c.; the ends of the chain
being furnished with a padlock.
In fair weather, the safest mode is to have all
the things moved out of the tent, and placed in
a heap, under charge of a sentry, who then need
pay little attention to any other object, as the
thieves are most intent on those trunks, &c.,
which they suppose to contain money, plate,
&c.: as to articles of apparel, they are of little
value, and would, probably, lead to discovery;
the handles of swords, and breast-plates, of
officers, being generally of solid silver, may be
placed among the furtive desiderata, therefore,
should be placed in a state of security.
When I speak of discovery, it is not to be
understood that the same dread is entertained
on that head, as prevails among the thieves of
.bn 414.png
.pn +1
this quarter of the world. In India, whole
villages are inhabited by thieves, who keep the
country around in a state of perpetual terror and
of vigilance: hence, when a jemmadar furnishes
chokey-dars, he often does it with great reluctance,
under the apprehension of a visit from
some neighbouring gang of notoriety, who act
with greater confidence, from the consideration,
that the village, at which the robbery may take
place, will be accountable for whatever property
may be stolen.
Hence, a party is always safest when encamped
near a village of professed thieves, who
will, ordinarily, forbear to depredate under that
circumstance; conscious that the value put
upon the several articles stolen, must necessarily
be, at least, tenfold their value to the
robbers; though not in the least exaggerated by
those from whom they were stolen.
Here it is to be observed, that, in order to
render the claim to remuneration clear and decisive,
it is proper that a requisition should
have been made to the jemmadar for chokey-dars;
otherwise, it may be argued, that the property
was not under his protection. Sometimes, by
way of cavil, a jemmadar, of such a description,
will find fault with the position of an encampment,
and use many pleas for the purpose of
raising objections, whenever the losses sustained
may be laid before the collector, or judge
.bn 415.png
.pn +1
of the district. If, however, he should refuse
to grant chokey-dars, it will be necessary to keep
a very sharp look-out; it being a strong indication
of intended mischief.
Almost every jemmadar of character will reprobate
the indulgence of that kind of curiosity
which leads gentlemen, on their first arrival, to
pay the smallest attention to the performances of
mountebanks, jugglers, puppet-show-men, &c.;
all of whom are notorious thieves, and are attended
by numerous confederates, whose business
it is to patrole about under the semblance
of country-bumkins, come to view the camp,
and to take advantage of whatever opportunities
may arise, in consequence of servants, &c.,
quitting their several charges, to witness the
exhibitions of the attractive portion of the
gang.
My memory supplies various instances of the
success of this stratagem; a circumstance not to
be wondered at, when we consider the almost
incredible perfection to which leger-de-main, the
tour de passe-passe, and gymnastic exhibitions,
are brought in India. I shall offer a few of the
feats displayed by these people, observing, that,
with regard to drawing yards of thread from the
noses and ears of spectators; cutting their
turbans into pieces, and joining them again;
changing eggs to chickens, and mango-stones
into growing bushes, bearing the ripe fruit,
.bn 416.png
.pn +1
making pigeons lay eggs, &c.; all such are considered
as mere common-place deceptions, confined
to the lower orders of this class of vagabonds.
The passing a sword-blade, of about two feet
in length, and two inches in breadth, down the
gullet, so as to be distinctly felt by the application
of a hand to the operator’s stomach, is certainly
the most extraordinary part of the exhibition.
In this, there is no deception whatever;
the sword is entire, and firmly fixed to the
handle; while its solidity is such as to remove
all doubt regarding pliancy or evasion in any
mode: all we can say of it is, that the practice
is adopted at an early age; and that the implement
used is gradually encreased, from a small
rattan to that above described.
As to vaulting, the number of somersets, and
capers, made, with seeming facility, while
bounding over the backs of elephants, or of
camels, placed side-by-side, are truly astonishing!
Throwing spears at each other, and catching
them under the arms, while in the act of
mission, mutually, cannot but cause both dread
and surprize: the accuracy with which this is
constantly done, seems to preclude all admiration
at the skill of the celebrated William Tell.
Jumping through a frame that supports several,
perhaps a dozen, of tulwars, (cutlasses,) of
which the edges are remarkably sharp, and
.bn 417.png
.pn +1
which appear to preclude the passage of a man’s
body through the little interval left among their
points, must be viewed with admiration; as
must also the running bare-foot along a piece of
cloth, perhaps ten yards in length, that is supported,
at about a foot from the ground, by
several men, each of whom holds, under the
cloth, a sharp tulwar, of which the edge is
turned upwards: the astonishing agility with
which this is performed, absolutely requires to
be seen ere it can be duly appreciated!
Some curious performances in balancing are
worthy of notice: of these, the stringing, and
unstringing, of eggs, is, perhaps, the most extraordinary.
A man balances, on his head, a
kind of platter, projecting, perhaps, six inches
every way, of rather a conical form, (inverted,)
and furnished all around with draw-loops of,
perhaps, a foot in length, and about two inches
asunder: their whole number may amount to
twenty, or more. On his left arm he bears a
basket, containing as many eggs as there are
loops attached to the platter.
Using one foot for a pivot, he keeps moving
round by the aid of the other, so as make about
ten revolutions in a minute, and, while in
motion, successively takes the eggs from the
basket, and, with his right hand only, puts each
into a loop, drawing it tight, so as to retain the
egg firmly in an equipoised state.
.bn 418.png
.pn +1
In this manner he strings all the eggs, and
again unstrings and re-places them in the basket;
he always moving the same way. When the
whole are strung, the music quickens its time
considerably, and the operator, conforming to
the change, accelerates his pace in proportion,
until the velocity acquired by the eggs is such,
as to occasion their whirling on a level with
the platter.
I consider this to be the most arduous of all
the exercises in that branch which depends,
principally, on delicacy and caution. If we
consider how many chances of failure exist,
whether from a slip of the foot, a want of attention
to the due elevation of the elbow, the
aptness of the unemployed loops to become
entangled, the giddiness to be apprehended
from turning full half an hour, with such
speed, always the same way, and the possibility
of allowing a newly-laden loop to fall into its
place too suddenly, and the same in withdrawing
it, when about to take out the egg; all these
are certainly points very difficult to compass, or
to avoid, and entitle the artist to unlimitted
approbation.
I observe, in Cordiner’s Description of
Ceylon, some feats of the jugglers in that island
noticed as being beyond compare; but I cannot
conceive any thing more dexterous than that
operation, so common in Bengal, of balancing a
.bn 419.png
.pn +1
bamboo ladder, about fifteen feet in length, on a
man’s chin, and allowing a well-grown lad, or a
young woman, to ascend to the summit, by
winding in and out between the steps, (which
barely admit the body to pass,) and ultimately
to descend, head foremost, in the same manner,
after balancing, horizontally, with extended arms
and legs, on either standard of the ladder. I
have often wondered what the man’s chin could
be made of!!!
Swarming up a stout bamboo pole, of full
twenty feet long, balanced on a man’s hip, or
shoulder, and descending again, by first attaching
to the summit by the toes, and measuring a
whole length downwards, the back being against
the bamboo; then turning the opposite way, and
thus, in alternate succession; always appeared to
me equally dangerous and astonishing. To
perform this, a man must possess unconscionable
strength in his toes and ankles: the first slip
would infallibly be the last!
The puppet-shows, called kaut-pootlies, (i.e.
wooden infants,) are certainly superior to Mr.
Punch and his wife, as exhibited by various renowned
persons throughout England. In India,
there is to be seen far greater variety, both in
the subject, and in the several dramatis personæ:
there, something like a regular piece is
represented, and it rarely requires a glossary, or
interpreter, to define the several scenes; an aid,
.bn 420.png
.pn +1
without which our artists, in general, make but
little impression on their spectators, whose
imaginations are generally set on the stretch to
divine the meaning of various antics, which,
though abundantly ludicrous, seem to proceed
from momentary fancy, rather than from any
regular system.
The kaut-pootly-wallah, or puppet-dancer,
does not confine himself to a small centry-box-like
theatre; on the contrary, when he is to display
before any respectable persons, he makes a
point of paying his respects during the day, and
of soliciting the loan of either a small tent, a
konaut, a satrinje, or some such article, for the
purpose of enclosing and covering in the necessary
space, so that he and his co-adjutors may
perform their parts in secresy. It is commonly
made a point that the performance should be by
candle-light, and at some little distance from the
line of tents. This is almost a sine quâ non with
this tribe, who, being in league with rogues of
all descriptions, rarely fail to profit by the absence
of servants from the charge of their masters’ property,
and, while perhaps both master and man
are grinning at the objects presented on the
proscenium, are employed in removing from the
tents whatever articles, of a portable description,
may be exposed to depredation.
Sometimes the farce is concluded by a shower
of clods, &c., thrown from a distance, and the
.bn 421.png
.pn +1
whole fly in confusion. This is a device practised
on the liberal, under the representation of
the dealer in wood and wire-work, that some of
the nutkuts, or frolicksome youths, of the camp,
have battered the whole of the paraphernalia to
pieces; in confirmation of which, some heads
and tails of ci-devant kings and queens are produced.
I was once much amused with an imposition
of this kind, that was practised, with
admirable address, upon a good-natured field
officer, who actually credited the representation,
and, in addition to the loss of several candle-sticks,
and some other small items, lent to the
artists, compounded to pay for various fractures,
simple and compound, sustained by the inanimate
heroes!
Among the itinerant amusements of India,
we must class the nuts, or tumblers, a people
totally distinct from all the other inhabitants of
the country, and who correspond, in a number
of instances, with the gypsies of Europe. The
following extracts from a paper furnished to the
Asiatic Society by Lieutenant-Colonel D. T.
Richardson, a gentleman of acknowledged abilities,
and who has been remarkably industrious
in obtaining a very complete acquaintance with
the customs and languages of Hindostan, will
display this matter in the best manner, and shew
that a greater connection subsists, or at least has
subsisted, between the nuts of Asia, and the
.bn 422.png
.pn +1
gypsies of Europe, than our literati are in general
aware of.
At page 473, of the Asiatic Researches, we
have the following passage. ‘Both the gypsies,
and the nuts, are generally a wandering race of
beings, seldom having a fixed habitation. They
have each a language peculiar to themselves.
That of the gypsies is, undoubtedly, a specimen
of Hindostanee, and so is that of the nuts. In
Europe, it answers all the purposes of concealment.
Here, a conversion of its syllables becomes
necessary.’ (i.e. in India.)
‘The gypsies have their king; the nuts their
nardar-boutah; they are equally formed into
companies, and their peculiar employments are
exactly similar; viz. dancing, singing, music,
palmistry, quackery, dancers of monkeys, bears,
and snakes. The two latter professions, from
local causes, are peculiar to the nuts. They are
both considered as thieves; at least, that division
of the nuts whose manners come nearest those
of the gypsies. In matters of religion they appear
equally indifferent; we know that neither
the gypsies, nor the budeea-nuts, are very choice
on that particular; and, though I have not
obtained any satisfactory proof of their eating
human flesh, I do not find it easy to divest my
mind of suspicions on this head. Indeed, one
would think the stomach that could receive,
without nausea, a piece of putrid jackal, could
.bn 423.png
.pn +1
not well retain any qualms in the selection of
animal food.’
Colonel Richardson furnishes a number of
words in use among the gypsies, which correspond
immediately with others in the language of
the nuts. I offer a few, which appear to me
best adapted to the illustration of this point;
observing, that the orthography used by the
author, though perfectly correct, would not
prove satisfactory to a person unversed in the
Oriental pronunciation of the vowels. As a
remedy, or rather an aid, absolutely necessary
towards giving the European reader a perfect
conception of the due intonations, I have, in this,
followed my ordinary plan of spelling the Hindostanee
words, in such manner as should enable
a person totally ignorant of that language to
pronounce them with propriety.
.pm start_quote
.ta l:4 l:18 l:4 l:18 l:4 l:18
GYPSEY WORDS.| |HINDOSTANEE SYNONYMES. || ENGLISH TRANSLAT.|
| Apra | | Ooper | | Above
| Bebee | | Beebee | | Aunt, or lady
| Pownee | | Pawnee | | Water
| Devus | | Dewus | | Day
| Rattee | | Raut | | Night
| Can | | Caun | | Ear
| Dad | | Dada | | Grandfather
| Valashtee | | Belaist | | Finger
| Mutchee | | Mutchee | | Fish
| Gur | | G’hur | | House
| Shing | | Sing | | Horn
| Ballow | | Baul | | Hair
.bn 424.png
.pn +1
| Shunalee | | Soonaie | | Hearing
| Liecaw | | Leckap | | Writing
| Dai | | Dhye | | Nurse
| Mass | | Mass | | Food
| Tod | | Dood | | Milk
| Boot | | Bote | | Much
| Nack | | Nauk | | Nose
| Booro-panee | | Burrah-paunee | | Great water
| Doriove | | Derriow | | River
| Lolo | | Loll | | Red
| Booro-chairee | | Burra-choory | | Great knife
| Roop | | Roopah | | Silver
| Saup | | Saump | | Snake
| Dicken | | Deckna | | To see
| Loon | | Noon | | Salt
| Jaw | | Jow | | Go
| Kali-coe | | Kul-ko | | Yesterday
| Tschor | | Choor | | Thief
| Dori | | Doory | | String
| Rajah | | Rajah | | A lord
| Ranee | | Rannee | | Princess
| Raz | | Raj | | Principality
| Banduk | | Baundook | | Musket
| Jammadar | | Jemmadar | | An officer
| Gour | | Gor | | Grave
| Mul | | Mool | | Wine
| Dur | | Door | | Jar
| Jungustri | | Angootee | | Ring
| Paka | | Punk | | Wing
| Schut | | Kuttah | | Sour
| Ker | | G’hur | | House
| Sapa | | Savon | | Soap
| Menghna | | Maungna | | To want
| Pi | | Pee | | Drink
| Metchana | | Putchana | | To know
.bn 425.png
.pn +1
| Me-dikaka | | My-deckata | | I saw
| Chabben | | Chabna | | To eat
| Tober | | Tobula | | An axe
| Starrie | | Sitara | | Star
| Rashee | | Rishee | | Priest
| Bocolee | | Bookap | | Hungry
| Por | | Poor | | Full
| Geecoa | | Jee-oo-ka | | Life, living.
.ta-
.pm end_quote
The foregoing will suffice to give much insight
into the affinity spoken of; especially when it
is considered that the gypsey words are chiefly
taken from Grellman’s Vocabulary, wherein we
are to make considerable allowances for German
intonation, especially regarding the vowel u, and
the dipthong oo, as in dur, and door; and for
dori, and doory; the slight differences between
which, so far as is connected with orthography,
would probably disappear if the words were
spoken by a German gypsey, and a nut, respectively.
Add to this, that the natives of India
use the letters L, and N, rather promiscuously:
thus, they say either leel, or neel, (for blue);
the capital of Oude is as often called Nucklow,
as Lucknow, and the word noon, (salt,) is very
commonly pronounced loon; as in the gypsey
language.
If it is considered that the foregoing comparison
did not take place at a time when Colonel
Richardson had the opportunity to examine
closely into the particulars, by having access to
.bn 426.png
.pn +1
European gypsies, whose familiar conversation,
when explained, might have furnished numberless
instances of accordance, which, from his
accurate knowledge of the Hindostanee language,
might ever have been such as to enable him to
understand a gypsey colloquy; we must admit
that strong probabilities exist, as to the nuts and
the gypsies being branches from the same stock.
Colonel Richardson observes, very properly,
‘Should any real Hindostanee scholars ever investigate
this matter on the spot in Europe, their
evidence and observations will probably settle
the matter effectually, one way or other, for
ever.’ He likewise remarks, that ‘Grellman,
from a want of knowledge of the Hindostanee,
lost many opportunities of producing the proper
word, in comparison with the gypsey one’—and
again, he forcibly remarks, that ‘It is not the
accidental coincidence of a few words, but the
whole vocabulary he (Grellman) produces, differs
not so much from the common Hindostanee,
as provincial dialects of the same country usually
do from each other.’
That cast, or tribe, of nuts, known by the
name of bauzeegurs, generally affect to follow
the Mahomedan faith, but the purneah peeries,
or budeea tribe, follow either that, or the
doctrines of Brahma, just as may suit their purposes,
or their locality. Either sect have so
very few religious ceremonies, as to render it
.bn 427.png
.pn +1
doubtful whether they profess more than may
serve to screen them from the imputation of
atheism; a charge which would sink them
even lower in the estimation of every inhabitant
of Asia. They inter their relations in a very
slovenly manner, and may often be found lying
drunk about the grave: their marriage forms are
extremely simple, the bride and bridegroom
mutually mark each other’s faces with red ochre,
after which, they lock their little fingers together,
and avow their union: the ceremony is usually
concluded by a sacrifice to the muddled deity,
in which all bear their parts with great eagerness,
and devotion!
It is a rule among the nuts never to go to law,
nor to submit their differences to any arbitrators,
except of their own profession: owing to the
extreme jealousy of the men, and the frequent
excesses of both sexes in the use of gaunjah,
and other intoxicating draughts, such differences
are by no means rare, and contribute partly to
the support of their rulers, who receive a fourth
part of whatever is earned, or perhaps begged,
borrowed, or stolen, by the several sets which
ramble over the country, according to their own
fancies, or as they may be ordered.
Such regular debauchery, added to the violent
exercise undergone during their early years,
reduce the period of life among these people to
a very short compass. Few live beyond the age
.bn 428.png
.pn +1
of forty, and by far the larger portion fail of attaining
their thirtieth year; the women generally
fall victims after having borne four or five children.
With respect to dancing, which is a part of
the duties of a female nut, much encomium
cannot be justly bestowed: their style of performance
is vulgar, and they generally study that
kind of lewd display, which renders their performances
too indelicate to be described. Tumbling
head-over-heels, walking upon their hands,
Catherine-wheel, &c., &c.; all come within the
display afforded for a trifling gratuity!
The traveller will sometimes be visited by
sets of nautch-girls, who either reside in some
of the principal towns, and make a point of
offering their services towards the amusement of
gentlemen traversing the country; or who are
itinerants, that pick up a livelihood by rambling
about, chiefly among the villages inhabited by
Mahomedans, whose dispositions are more
prompt than those of the Hindus to receive
gratification from voluptuous exhibitions. Besides,
the latter are generally more penurious, and
are so rigidly tied down, both by tenet, and by
the vigilance of their neighbours, as to have but
little scope for indulgence in those sensualities,
which the followers of the Prophet, who
anxiously look forward to the enjoyment of the
houris, are less scrupulous to conceal.
.bn 429.png
.pn +1
The greater part of the individuals composing
the taffah, or set of female dancers, are either
attached by family connections, such as marriage
with the oostauds and surmaunjahs, who are
the instructors and musicians; or they are
slaves obtained by purchase during times of
scarcity: some, indeed, are kidnapped when
very young, on account of their promising features;
these rarely are able to give any account
of their parentage, and do not always know the
districts in which they were born.
Whatever may be their origin, or their connection,
the dancers, who are likewise vocal
performers, are entirely subservient to some person,
whether male or female, who is considered
the proprietor of the set, and on whose application
to any court of law, or to any soubah, or
person in power, any run-away is immediately
pursued, and restored to the taffah; whether
the obligation be peremptory, such as in the
case of a baundy, or actual slave; or merely
implied, as in the case of a paulah, or person
preserved from famine, &c., and reared in the
capacity of a menial.
The Mahomedan law barely recognizes actual
slavery, but makes a great distinction in favor of
those who purchase, or thus adopt, children
that would otherwise, in all probability, perish
from want. The latter are considered to be the
property of the patron, until arrived at their full
.bn 430.png
.pn +1
growth, which is understood to be about the
age of eighteen; but this affords easy evitation
to such proprietors of taffahs as feel an interest
in the detention of any particular girls under
their authority.
To say the truth, very little cause of complaint
seems to exist on such occasions: the
girls are usually well cloathed, and well fed;
they are rarely limitted in regard to paramours,
and, on the whole, experience as much comfort
as their habits, and those envious traits ever to
be seen among persons of the same profession,
admit. Where these taffahs are found in the
vicinity of our camps, and stations, whether
civil or military, it is common to see the dancers
attach themselves to some particular European
gentlemen, of whose friendship they make much
boast: the profits of such a speculation cannot
be wholly reserved by any one of the party;
they are supposed to be surrendered, without
diminution, to the proprietor, for the general
benefit of the set.
That full surrender is not, however, always
made; on the contrary, some contrive to redeem
themselves from this species of demi-slavery,
by means of sums accumulated in the course of
years, and concealed, with extreme solicitude,
from the scrutinizing eye of the proprietor.
When such a redemption takes place, it is never
done overtly, but by the pretended interference
.bn 431.png
.pn +1
of some gentleman, or opulent native, who,
either from love, or charity, feels disposed to
pay the ransom: were the possession of the property
to be acknowledged by the anxious
female, it would instantly be seized as a droit,
and she would probably undergo that severest
of Hindostanee punishments, the loss of all her
kase, or hair!
It is not uncommon for persons purchasing
slaves, or rearing deserted children, to affix the
badge of slavery immediately, and to cause it
to be worn by the unfortunate being, thus
devoted to tyrannical authority during life. This
type of dependance consists simply of an iron
ring, similar to those on light fetters, which is
worn on either of the ankles, generally on the
left: there it is rivetted in the usual manner,
with the intention of being always seen. To
remove the ring, is considered highly criminal
on the part of all concerned, and should the
slave be thereby enabled to abscond, would
subject the abettors to payment of his or her
value.
In every part of India the profession of a
prostitute is devoid of that stigma annexed to it
in Europe: persons following it are protected by
law in certain privileges, and their persons are
far from being held in abomination, such as we
should suppose must be generated towards so
impure a character among the moralists of the
.bn 432.png
.pn +1
East. This is entirely owing to the profession
being hereditary, the same as other sects, and
not promiscuous, or arising from vicious propensities,
as we see daily the case among
us.
It is true the term kusbee is used as a reproach;
but that seems rather to refer to such as, like
our wantons, degenerate in consequence of their
libidinous dispositions, and are not attached to
the two great divisions, the meerasseens, and the
puttareahs, both of which have claims on the
bounty of princes, and to exemptions from certain
taxes; though, to make up for such indulgences,
the cutwals, and other native officers,
under whose authority they may reside, not only
demand their attendance, whether to sing, dance,
or what not, gratis, but impose upon them
heavy assessments, in proportion to their repute
and prosperity.
With the view to prevent the encrease of a
certain disorder, which proceeds with rapid
strides in that hot climate, it is customary to
appoint a committee every month, at each
great station, for the inspection of such dulcineas
as may be resident within the bounds of
the cantonments: such as appear to be diseased,
are instantly confined to a small hospital, appropriated
to their reception: a salutary measure,
which doubtless prevents much mischief,
and is superior to our Lock Institution, which
.bn 433.png
.pn +1
only offers, but does not coerce to, a proper
course of medicine.
Such women as, being married, or living
under the protection of any person, are found to
indulge in variety, are designated chinauls, and
are held in far greater disrepute than the professed
kusbee, or common prostitute. As predestinarians
constantly contradict, by their
evasions of danger, the main principle of their
creed, so do the good folks of Hindostan deviate
widely from their system of ethics on this head;
for, although adultery, under any circumstances
whatever, is held up as a mortal sin, to be
atoned for by death only; nevertheless, we find
the males of all ages particularly bent on that
kind of gallantry which comes within the letter
of the law, and generally produces the contact
of two persons whose casts are thereby respectively
polluted. In a former part, I explained
more fully the deceptions practised by native
women retained by European gentlemen; it remains
for me to add, that such is the spirit of
intrigue prevalent among the people at large,
that we may at least conclude the ladies in that
quarter to keep pace with the most enlightened
of our own population!
When a native, especially a Hindu, of high
cast, suspects that his wife is guilty of infidelity,
he generally proceeds to repudiate her
in the most public manner; but it often happens
.bn 434.png
.pn +1
that he is saved that trouble, either by the
intervention of her father, brother, &c., who,
under pretence of conducting her home, leads
the offender to some lone spot, where, with his
tulwar, he severs her head from her body, and
deliberately leaves both to be devoured by
jackals, &c. This office is likewise occasionally
performed by the husband himself; who must,
however, be careful not to betray his intention,
lest a powerful dose, mixed among his takorry,
(vegetable curry,) should prevent the completion
of his design, or, possibly, cause him to fall a
sacrifice to the lover’s resentment.
A very curious instance of this occurred in
1789, wherein a sepoy, of my own company,
was principally concerned. He had long been
in the good graces of a woman who was married
to a sonaar, (goldsmith,) then absent in another
part of the country. The lady’s father,
who had no other child, on learning the particulars
of the intrigue from one of her servants,
remonstrated, but in vain. He then determined
to sacrifice her, and ordered that she should
quit her own home, for the purpose of being
conducted to his house, which was in a village
some miles distant.
Suspecting his intention, the adultress communicated
the circumstance to her lover, who
advised her to follow her father, and promised to
prevent his doing her any injury. Accordingly,
.bn 435.png
.pn +1
she allowed her parent to precede her, as usual,
(for no woman ever walks before a man, especially
if it be her husband, or any relative,)
until they arrived at a small jungle, when, as he
was about to draw his tulwar to sauf-kur
(literally, ‘to make clean,’ but, in the accepted
sense, to kill, or destroy,) her, the lover
darted forth, and, at one blow, took off his
head.
The lady and her lover were both apprehended,
and tried before the zemindary court at
Benares, within whose jurisdiction the crime
was perpetrated: against the woman nothing
could be urged, she was therefore acquitted;
the man was convicted, and condemned; but
the woman, being next of kin to the deceased,
and having the right, according to the law, of
pardoning his murderer, instantly gave him her
absolution in open court, and, to the great surprize
and mortification of the whole court, returned
homewards with her paramour, to persevere
in the adulterous intercourse.
It was in vain that Marquis Cornwallis, on
receipt of the intelligence, used every endeavor
to obtain a revision of the proceedings: the
Court were inflexible, and the parties could not,
legally, be apprehended. His Lordship was,
therefore, left without that redress he thought
due to the public, and could only cause the
sepoy to be dismissed from the Company’s
.bn 436.png
.pn +1
service, and to be banished from the Company’s
dominions.
Where the law gives so absurd a power, it
might be expected that scarce a husband would
be safe; but that is not the case; for they, in
general, act very decidedly, whenever they are
made acquainted with the existence of offences
against conjugal propriety. The caution used
in conducting an amour is not always very
great, but there is, in fact, only one difficulty
to be overcome, viz. the obtaining admission to
the interior while the husband is absent: that
being effected, detection is not very easy, because,
the immured state in which women are
kept, offers the best screen against the curiosity
of prying neighbours.
What with the dark color of the mud walls,
the sombre complexion of the people themselves,
and the shade commonly cast by heavy
foliages, standing in the vicinity of villages in
general, as well as by the over-hanging thatches,
&c., it is not very easy, even for a neighbour,
to ascertain, after night-fall, whether a person,
having a cloth on the head, entering the sacred
enclosure, be male or female.
About the year 1786, a laughable story was
current, regarding a young officer who had a
very pretty Hindoo girl in keeping, but who,
being of a very salacious disposition, always
endeavored to prevail with such young women
.bn 437.png
.pn +1
as came to vend fruits, or to sell choories, &c.,
to be his inmate. One of these daily visitors held
out against every temptation, which so roused
the youth’s passions, that he resolved to obtain
that by force which money could not purchase.
The struggle made a terrible discovery; the
supposed damsel proving to be a young Portugueze
drummer!!!
The ordinary mode of conveyance adopted by
the generality of nautch-taffahs, is the common
hackery, called a g’horry, which has two wheels,
with a square body, as has been already described;
in one of these, four or five crowd
together, sitting almost back to back, and allowing
their legs to hang down on every side.
The generality are of very decent behavior,
but, when they get a little majoom (a sweatmeat
prepared with b’haug) into their noddles,
it is not uncommon to see them proceed in high
style, singing away in full chorus, and, occasionally,
exhibiting specimens of their profession,
by attitudes corresponding with the
words of songs purely Cyprian!
The baggage, if any, is commonly carried on
some hired bullock, or in a hackery; some sets
are, however, so opulent, as to be able to keep
one or two camels, and to purchase a tolerably
good Hindostanee tent, that is, without walls,
and supported by two bamboo poles, each about
eight or nine feet long.
.bn 438.png
.pn +1
The baggage of Europeans is, ordinarily
carried on elephants, camels, bullocks, hackeries,
or coolies: of late years, a great improvement
has been made, by taking off the body of a gig,
with its shafts, and substituting a frame, made
on such a plan as may serve to contain several
trunks and liquor chests below, while a cot,
with all the necessary bedding, having over
them a painted canvas canopy, covers the whole,
and keeps every part compact and dry. Such a
conveyance, with a tolerably stout horse, is
found to get on far more expeditiously than any
of the others.
With respect to elephants, it may be said,
that they are either the best, or the worst, carriage:
in the low countries, where the soil is
often soft for the greater part of the year, the
elephant is certainly a most useful animal; his
feet being broad, and his power so great as to
enable his acting with decision and energy at
the moment of difficulty, qualify him, almost
exclusively, for the transportation of tents, and
heavy baggage, in such parts of the country as
remain heavy or swampy during the more
settled part of the year.
Though we may suppose, that, previous to
the plains of Bengal being cultivated, they were
over-ran with elephants, the same as other
parts of India, of which that animal is a native,
still it should seem, that their principal haunts
.bn 439.png
.pn +1
must have been along that hilly wilderness in
which they are now found in a gregarious state.
It is well known that the elephant thrives best
near the sea, that in its vicinity he attains his
greatest bulk, and is exempt from various
diseases, especially the opthalmia and the
dropsy, both of which attack at least four in five
of such as are removed to dry soils. This circumstance,
as well as the peculiar formation
and substance of the foot, appear to render the
elephant peculiarly appropriate to the use of such
persons as have occasion for carriage-cattle (i.e.
cattle that bear burthens) in the lower provinces.
Endued with wonderful sagacity, the elephant
will only proceed on soils which bear him up to
a certain extent: so soon as he feels a peculiar
vibration, that indicates a want of firmness
below, he instantly declines further progress,
and, turning round, or receding, with more
activity than his clumsy form may indicate,
hastens to quit the apprehended danger; and,
without regard to things or persons, makes the
best of his way to terra firma.
Sometimes, however, this majestic animal
gets bogged, and, notwithstanding his immense
strength, becomes completely incapable of self-extrication.
On such an occasion, nothing
more is necessary than to supply him with
abundance of straw, or cut grass, tied in
.bn 440.png
.pn +1
bundles; these he forces down with his proboscis,
till they are under his feet respectively;
and, by their accumulated resistance, afford the
means of gradually bearing up, and of raising
him to the surface. His egress is ensured by
an ample stock of the same materials, together
with faggots, &c., thrown before him, in number
sufficient to form a kind of path-way,
along which the elephant moves with wondrous
caution: on such an occasion, he should, like a
mule on a mountain, be left to himself, as he
will manage with perfect prudence; whereas, if
actuated by a mohout, (or driver,) he might be
again plunged into difficulty.
The stature of elephants, in general, may be
rated between seven and nine feet: the former
is the standard at which they are admitted upon
the Company’s establishment, at the value of
five hundred sicca rupees each (£65). Provided
the animals be stout, and competent to
carry a proper burthen, such blemishes as would
depreciate them considerably among the natives,
who entertain many prejudices in this
particular, are not considered.
The principal defects, in the eye of a native
merchant, are,
1. A broken tail; or a deficiency of the
forked hair at its termination. The former
arises from the habit the elephants are in, of
laying hold of their opponent’s tails with their
.bn 441.png
.pn +1
trunks, and of twisting them so, that, occasionally,
they are absolutely snapped, or, perhaps,
tumefy, and, in the end, sphacelate.
2d. An uneven number of claws to the feet:
there should be five on each fore, and four on
each hind foot.
3d. Bad tusks; that is, such as are decayed,
or, having been broken in contests, cannot be
rendered ornamental: an elephant born with
only one tooth, or tusk, is highly prized, as
being sure to overwhelm its owner with good
fortune.
4th. Having a black, or spotted palate; either
of which is supposed to be an indication of bad
health, as well as of misfortune.
5th. Bad eyes; though sometimes we see
very serviceable elephants totally deprived of
sight, which travel admirably with burthens,
but are unfit for the howdah; these are extremely
careful to put their trunks forward as
they proceed, whereby they are warned of any
hollows, &c. Blind elephants are peculiarly
attentive to the words of command given by
their drivers.
6th. The want of hair on the forehead, lean
jaws, small jagged ears, narrow feet, thin legs,
short bodies, and a contracted barrel, or carcase,
are all objectionable, and become serious objects
of attention in the purchase of this animal. An
.bn 442.png
.pn +1
European, not accustomed to view elephants
critically, would conclude that little variety, in
the above respects, would be found; but there
are certainly as many estimable, or agreeable,
points in a fine elephant, as in a fine horse;
though we rarely look so narrowly into the perfections
of the former, on account of being less
in the habits of cherishing, or of driving, them
in person.
According to the regulations, an elephant ought
to be able to carry twenty-five maunds, which
is within a twenty-sixth part of being a ton;
but, although the several contractors stipulate,
without hesitation, that their elephants should
be able to carry that weight at all times, not one
in a hundred of those in the service, or in the
possession of individuals, could bear it even for
one day’s ordinary march, which should not
exceed eight coss, (sixteen miles,) all beyond
that being considered a forced march.
The elephant is furnished with two pads, of
which the under one, called a guddaylah, is
commonly made of red karwah, stuffed to the
thickness of an inch and a half with cotton, and
well quilted. The upper pad, called a guddy,
is made of tawt, which is a narrow kind of very
coarse canvas, and is stuffed very hard with straw
to about the thickness of six inches. These are
put on, the one over the other, and firmly secured
.bn 443.png
.pn +1
to the body by means of stout ropes passing
round the whole, as well as under the tail,
by way of crupper.
Such a thickness may appear too great; but
it is to be considered that an elephant ought,
by the contract, to carry either four common
marquees, each weighing, when dry, 425lb.,
and, when wet, 597lb.; or six private tents, each
weighing, when dry, 275lb., and, when wet,
426lb. Therefore, when I take the medium at
twenty-five maunds, it is but striking a fair
balance.
An ordinary elephant requires two servants;
namely, a mohout, or driver, who sits upon his
back, and guides, by means of a crooked instrument
of iron, called a haunkus, aided by words
of command, and the application of his toes
behind the animal’s ears. The other servant,
called a cooly, or grass-cutter, performs all the
more menial offices, such as taking the elephant
out for charrah, i.e. fodder, of which it can carry
as much as will suffice for two, or, if well laden,
for three days.
The feet of an elephant require considerable
care; they being extremely apt to chafe, and
wear away, at the soles, so as to render him
completely unserviceable for a time. This generally
happens where the soil is dry and harsh,
as throughout the upper country, but may be,
in a great measure, prevented by paying them
.bn 444.png
.pn +1
with astringent applications, so that the skin
may be rendered harder, and the foot, in general,
somewhat callous.
When an elephant is chafed on the back, the
part is usually rubbed with ghee and turmeric,
and the pad cushioned so as to raise the spot
under which the excoriation may be: if suffered
to continue in a state of irritation, the smallest
sore will speedily assume a most formidable appearance,
owing to the peculiarly cellular formation
of an elephant’s flesh.
The mode of catching elephants for the public
service is very simple, requiring more perseverance
than skill, yet attended with a heavy
expence. In those wildernesses near Chittagong,
Tipperah, &c., along the eastern boundary,
some hundreds, or perhaps thousands, of villagers
are assembled, who form a circle around
those herds they may find, and gradually frighten
them into a kind of trap, called a keddah, of
which the entrance is of a crescent form, leading
to a large area, properly enclosed by an immense
trench, and by large piles well bound
together. After a while, the animals are driven,
or induced, into a smaller area, from which
they are taken into a narrow passage, for the
purpose of being secured, and led away to the
stands, at which they remain until completely
tamed.
It was formerly the practice to break their
.bn 445.png
.pn +1
spirit by privations and severity; but, of late
years, it has been found preferable to sooth as
much as possible; a change which has been attended
with the most happy results. So far has
this plan succeeded, that many elephants are
now better reconciled in one month than they
formerly were in four or five; while, at the
same time, many inconveniences, especially
those severe ligatures, which invariably made
desperate sores about the ankles, &c., are almost
wholly avoided.
The practice of decoying the large single
males, which separate from the herds, and are
called sauns, or goondahs, is extremely curious:
two or three females are generally sent out for
the purpose of inveigling the ferocious males
thus ranging about. Such female elephants,
which are called k’hoomkies, are highly valuable,
especially if they be large, and attached to their
mohouts, whom they will protect to the last
moment, if accidentally discovered by their intended
prize while passing the ropes around his
legs. For a particular account of this, which
can scarcely be rendered distinct but by the aid
of plates, I refer my readers to ‘The Wild
Sports of the East,’ published from my
designs and memoirs by Mr. Edward Orme, of
Bond Street, and Messrs. Black, Parry, and
Kingsbury, of Leadenhall Street.
Contrary to the opinion formerly current, it
.bn 446.png
.pn +1
has been ascertained that elephants copulate in
the same manner as other quadrupeds. This
has been certified by Mr. John Corse, the resident
Surgeon at Tipperah, who established a
breed of elephants at that place; whereby much
insight has been obtained regarding the natural
history of this noble animal. When Mr. Corse
transmitted that account which may be seen in
the third volume of the Asiatic Researches,
he had not the opportunity of ascertaining
the period of gestation, which has since been
found to give an average of about twenty-two
months.
That less time could not be required, was
evident from the incipient portion of that gentleman’s
researches; as a female elephant, taken
in January, 1788, did not produce her calf,
which was thirty-five inches high at his birth,
and grew four inches in as many months, until
the 16th of October, 1789.
Elephants are invariably measured at the
shoulder, and not on the arch of the back, the
want of which is to be considered as indicative
of age.
Elephants are to be found along the whole
extent of frontier, ranging from the Chittagong
district, to the very borders of Thibet. They
become more scarce, and are, besides, less robust,
and of smaller stature, in proportion as they
recede from the sea coasts. Those sent yearly,
.bn 447.png
.pn +1
by way of compliment, or of tribute, from the
Rajah of Napaul, are by no means to be compared
with the coomaeeahs, and mooknahs of
Tipperah, and Chittagong, whose form and bulk
certainly entitle them to superior estimation.
Some of these are, occasionally, sold for immense
sums to the native princes in the upper parts of
Hindostan. Two thousand rupees are held to
be but a low price for a male of nine feet in
height, provided his teeth are large, even, and
of regular curves: sometimes elephants, of extraordinary
bulk, and of remarkably fine points,
have reached to eight or ten thousand rupees.
The expence of keeping an elephant will
vary according to the situation, and to the general
services wherein it is employed: in the
Dacca district but little expence is incurred,
unless hard labour is to be performed, there
being abundance of d’hul, (grass,) and of foliage,
of which the animal can always obtain an ample
supply gratis. There, a mohout rarely receives
more than three rupees monthly, and a grass-cutter
more than two. I have shewn, in describing
the servants necessary to be retained in
a gentleman’s suite, that the wages of these
menials are generally much higher; which,
when added to the average charges for food,
chiefly badjra, or millet stems, which must be
paid for, and rice, or barley, perhaps to the
extent of 30lb. daily, will cause the expence of
.bn 448.png
.pn +1
maintaining an elephant in the upper provinces,
to amount to full thirty, or thirty-five, rupees
per mensem; and that, too, exclusive of the
wear and tear of gear of all kinds. On the
whole, we may compute that an elephant, well
kept, will cost full forty rupees (£5.) monthly.
When we consider that, in England, few gentlemen
keep their horses for much less, and that
an elephant performs so much essential drudgery,
indeed, equal to a team of three stout cart horses,
also that the value of money in India is not half
so great as with us, we may deem the above
aggregate to be very moderate: the misfortune
is, that an elephant is not, like a horse, promptly
or generally useful; and that, owing to the
nature of the climate, as well as of the soil,
months often elapse before the proprietor of the
former may be able to avail himself of the valuable
powers of his sable property.
Camels are very generally kept by the officers
of the army throughout the upper provinces,
that is to say, above the Delta of the Ganges,
where the soil is more appropriate to their form,
than those muddy, slippery, tracts, in which these
animals are extremely subject to fall. When
such an accident happens, it is a great chance
but the animal is rendered useless; as, owing to
the great length of the hind legs, and to the
want of any membranes, or muscles, calculated
to prevent their easy divergence in diametrically
.bn 449.png
.pn +1
opposite directions, the pelvis is extremely apt
to split, and the power of extrication, or even
of support itself, is entirely lost to this very
valuable quadruped.
Though we generally attach the term ‘camel’
to that species of the camelus found in India,
where great numbers are bred by persons who
make a very large profit from their labors, the
animal under consideration, having but one
hump, or bunch, on its back, should, properly,
be called a ‘dromedary.’ Whatever may be
the true designation, the utility of the animal
in a climate, and on a soil, to which it is so
admirably suited by nature, is indisputable; but,
with regard to its powers, as described by naturalists,
or by travellers, I must beg leave to
enter a partial dissent.
I have now before me a very respectable
publication, wherein it is said, that ‘a camel
will carry a weight of 1,200lb., and will perform
a journey of three hundred leagues in eight
days.’ Now, my own experience convinces
me very fully that few camels will carry more
than eight maunds, when making, on an average,
stages of from fourteen, to sixteen, or, at the
very utmost, twenty miles within the day, for
two months; allowing a weekly halt.
So sensible are the Government of India of the
inability of a camel to perform any thing like the
service above described, that, in all their contracts,
.bn 450.png
.pn +1
in which it must have been seen they
take care so to proportion the burthens, that
none but the choicest of cattle could move
under them, it is especially detailed that such
camels as may be admitted upon the Company’s
establishment of carriage-cattle, should be rated
in the proportion of three camels to one elephant;
which, in other words, assigns to each a burthen
composed of two private tents, the weight
of each, when dry, being 275lb., and, when
wet, 426lb.; including poles, pins, mallets,
bags, &c.
Taking the medium as a standard, i.e. one
wet, and one dry tent, the average burthen
would be only 701lb., which will be found a
greater load than any camels, setting apart perhaps
one or two of extraordinary powers, which
have come within my observation, could carry
in a proper manner, so as to answer general
purposes, when marching with a regiment.
The value of a camel varies according to
size, form, age, condition, and disposition:
supposing all those points to be mediocrity,
from eighty, to a hundred and twenty, rupees
may be taken as a standard; observing, that,
where no military movement is in question, the
prices are often lower, and that, in cases of
emergency, they have been known to rise even
so high as to four, five, and six, hundred rupees:
but such, fortunately, is very rarely the case.
.bn 451.png
.pn +1
Most gentlemen keep two or three camels,
for the purpose of carrying their tent, liquors,
and cot. If on a moderate scale, two will generally
prove competent to the work, but if the
tent be large, the liquors and linen abundant,
and the cot extensive, or on a heavy construction,
a third camel will be necessary. In fact,
I know not of worse policy, than that we too
often see adopted, of burthening an animal with
as much as it can stand under. When the moment
of difficulty comes, as it rarely fails to do,
infinite vexation, and an enormous encrease of
expence, invariably follow. Hence, it will be
found advisable, though the primary expence
may be encreased, and the subsequent monthly
charges be a trifle greater, always to retain three,
in preference to two camels; unless the intended
burthens be very compact, and not subject to
accumulate a great addition of weight in wet
weather.
The difference shewn to exist between tents,
when wet, and when dry, according to the Company’s
standard, ascertained by actual experiments,
should prove a guide to all persons about
to proceed on a march, so to proportion the loads
imposed on their cattle as not to endanger their
total failure. It should never be forgotten, that
excoriations, however trivial in the first instance,
speedily rankle into wounds, not simply painful,
but generally trenching deeply on the immediate
.bn 452.png
.pn +1
powers, as well as on the condition, of those
useful dumb animals, which submit to the last
moment to the will of their heedless employers.
Camels, as well as elephants, lie down, so as
to bring their stomachs to the ground, while
receiving or discharging their burthens. At
such moments, the former are extremely irritable;
snarling, and watching the opportunity for
biting. To say the best of these animals, they
are never to be trusted, their dispositions being,
for the most part, sanguinary and treacherous,
although they are not carnivorous, being fed
chiefly on gram, and chaff of various kinds: a
camel, like the bull-dog, rarely lets go his hold.
The expence of maintaining a camel may be
averaged at about four or five rupees monthly,
exclusive of its portion of the surwan’s (i.e. the
driver’s) wages: the large crook saddle, with its
jolah, or canvas trappings, and its saleetah, or
canvas sheet made of tawt, for the purpose of
lading tents, and especially for bringing in chaff,
may be averaged, for wear and tear, at about a
rupee monthly. From this it will be seen, that
if a surwan, attending three camels, should receive
six rupees for pay, and that each of the camels
should cost six more, the whole expence, amounting
to twenty-four rupees per mensem, would
fall far short of that incurred by one elephant.
The advantages attendant upon an elephant,
are, that the load is all carried compact and
.bn 453.png
.pn +1
entire; that he can travel in swampy districts,
where no other animal could proceed at all; and
that he is serviceable to ride upon, and to join
in the line to beat hogs, and other game, out of
heavy covers. On the other hand, a camel will
travel on those dry soils which destroy an elephant’s
feet, without sustaining the smallest
injury; he is more patient under heat, and the
absence both of fodder and of water; his prime
cost is considerably less; his maintenance
cheaper; and, where a division of carriage becomes
necessary, one camel may be sent off,
while the others are retained. But camels rarely
thrive if exposed during the rains; hence, it is
customary to build sheds for their reception
during that season: this, however, is done at a
very trifling expence, and might, doubtless, be
dispensed with altogether, at least in the upper
provinces, if young animals were to be purchased
that had never been so domesticated.
Few gentlemen retain their camels while serving
near the Presidency, where fodder is at a
most enormous price, and where the mange
commonly attacks within a few weeks after
arrival.
The heavy, awkward, and apparently slow,
gait of the camel, generally induces to a belief
that its rate of travelling is disadvantageous, inasmuch
as it may denote inability to keeping up
with the generality of elephants. This, however,
.bn 454.png
.pn +1
is a great mistake, for it is very common
to see the latter, when in the least over-burthened,
or when the weather is hot, or the road
sandy, very late in arriving at their destination;
whereas, the camel, under an appropriate load,
will move on at a regular pace, generally making
a distance of seven feet, as I have repeatedly ascertained,
from the centre of that spot whence it
lifts a foot, to where it again sets it down: few
elephants do so much; they walk quicker, but
their strides are rarely so extensive.
The propensity of a camel to stale, so soon as
eased of his burthen, renders it indispensably
necessary to drive him to a distance so soon as
the tent is off his back; otherwise, the urinous
stench attached to the spot would render it very
unpleasant, or, rather, insupportable. The native
chemists extract large quantities of ammonia
from those stands where camels have been
kept for many weeks.
The greatest inconvenience attached to a camel
is his utter inability to swim across a river, such
as any other animal would consider no impediment.
It is true, that, occasionally, camels
may have been seen to swim for a few yards, but,
in general, they turn upon the side, and, unless
instantly rescued, would infallibly be drowned.
Perhaps this arises from the general roundness of
their bodies, which are very easily acted upon by
the super-incumbent weight of the neck and
.bn 455.png
.pn +1
head, that become levers, not sufficiently opposed
by their almost fleshless limbs. Some
camels enter with readiness into ferry-boats,
even of the rudest construction, while others
require to be urged by the display of fire in their
rear, or even by the actual cautery! When
once on board, they are generally quiet, but do
not seem to entertain such a dread of their insulated
situation as horses do.
In this particular, the elephant has a most decided
superiority: he enters the water with
alacrity, and, guided by the mohout, who preserves
his seat on the animal’s neck, until the
latter may, by way of frolic, descend to walk
on the bottom, keeping, at the same time, the
end of his proboscis above water, makes his
way to the opposite bank, though perhaps a
mile distant. If there be occasional shallows,
whereon he can refresh himself, two or three
miles are passed with equal facility.
In their wild state, elephants cross very large
rivers in herds; the young ones swimming by
the sides of their mothers, which, occasionally,
support their gigantic calves by means of their
trunks, either passed under the body, or slightly
hooked in with the young one’s proboscis.
When domesticated, elephants lose much of
their natural energy in every instance; and, in
lieu of viewing a tiger without fear, gradually
become so timid, as to be dreadfully agitated at
.bn 456.png
.pn +1
the sight, or smell, even of a dead one: hence,
in tiger-hunting, those elephants which are
more recently taken from the keddahs, provided
they be sufficiently trained to be safe in other
respects, are usually best suited to the sport,
and afford their riders a better chance of success.
Those who cannot afford, or who consider it
unnecessary, to retain either an elephant, or
camels, usually purchase, or hire, bullocks,
when about to march to any station not very
remote. Some, indeed, prefer them altogether;
but, after having given them more than one
trial, both from necessity, and from the persuasions
of others, my mind is made up to the
full conviction, that, although rarely costing
more than sixteen or twenty rupees each, (that
is, from forty to fifty shillings,) they are the
most tardy, the most troublesome, and the
most expensive, of all the beasts of burthen in
question!
Knowing, from dear-bought experience, that
a bullock which can carry five maunds is a rara
avis of its kind, I was much surprized to find,
in Mr. Colebrooke’s little treatise on the Husbandry
of Bengal, an assertion, that the enormous
‘load of 500lb. of cotton is generally carried
from Nagpore to Mirzapore, a distance
which, by the shortest route, exceeds four hundred
miles, in journies of eight or ten miles
.bn 457.png
.pn +1
daily.’ That some remarkably fine cattle are
bred in the Nagpore district is well known;
but I should have greatly doubted, under any
other than the highly respectable authority
alluded to, whether it would be possible to
select, in all Bengal, a sufficient number of
bullocks, bred in the country, to carry on the
extensive trade between Nagpore and Mirzapore,
under the circumstance of carrying 500lb.
as an ordinary load.
I have possessed very fine bullocks, such as
could not, generally, be obtained for less than a
hundred rupees the pair, and I have had occasion
to rely on their services; but found, that,
whenever they were laden beyond four maunds,
(320lb.,) they became restive, and required
many extra hours to perform a march of
twelve or fourteen miles, even on excellent
roads, and when in far better plight than
mahajuny (trading) bullocks are commonly
seen.
But let us refer to the regulations of the
Company respecting cattle to be admitted upon
their establishment; we shall there find, that
one Mirzapore bullock nearly equals three of
them. ‘The standard of cattle to be retained
for, or received into, the service, is not to be
less than fifty inches for the draft-bullocks, and
forty-eight inches for the carriage-bullocks.
Each carriage-bullock shall be competent to
.bn 458.png
.pn +1
carry a burthen of one hundred and eighty
pounds weight, exclusive of his pad.’
Now, it is well known the Company employ
excellent cattle, and take care to have justice
done them; as, indeed, they are fully entitled to
expect, when they allow no less than thirty
sicca rupees for each bullock purchased on their
account; especially, as any distance beyond
sixteen miles, or when laden for more than nine
hours within the twenty-four, or when carrying
more than 180lb., come under the denomination
of a forced march, and subject the Company to
all risks.
I should rather apprehend that an error has
crept into Mr. Colebrooke’s otherwise most
accurate calculations, owing to a cutcha-maund
of five paseeries, (of 10lb. each,) being in
general use in that part of the country. Five of
these maunds, of 50lb. each, make a tungy, which
is the common load for cattle carrying iron, and
other dead weights. Therefore, if we estimate
the general burthen to be in cutcha (i.e. small)
maunds, we shall find the result to be nearer
the ordinary result, than when we take 500lb.
for the amount of a load. It is a well-known
truth, that a private tent, with its poles, pins,
mallets, and bags, is an ample load for any
bullock, even in its dry state, and that, when
wet, it must be a choice animal that is competent
to bear it for even a very few miles.
.bn 459.png
.pn +1
In some of the very stony parts, it is usual to
shoe the bullocks, the same as is practised in
many parts of England; but, in general, that is
not found necessary. The saddles and pads
must be properly attended to, and the loads
should be well strapped on; otherwise, owing
to the skittishness of the cattle in India, and
their disposition to lie down, very frequently,
in a day’s journey, considerable injury must be
sustained, by such articles of lading as may be
subject to breakage, from such a practice.
However great a drawback such a propensity
may appear, it is found, that liquors may be
safely trusted to be conveyed by bullocks; but,
in order to ensure the bottles from breaking, it
is found necessary to pack every one of them
separate, wrapping round it a small loose band,
of that soft kind of hemp known by the name
of paut, and stitching the several rounds together
in the same manner as Florence oil
flasks, &c., are enveloped by small bands of
fine straw.
The paut, above mentioned, is grown in every
part of the country, but chiefly in Bengal,
where it attains to a considerable diameter,
perhaps an inch and a half in diameter, and often
grows eleven or twelve feet high. About three
years ago, I presented a specimen of paut to the
Bath Society, measuring more than ten feet in
length: it was the remainder of a quantity in
.bn 460.png
.pn +1
which I had packed some bottles when quitting
Bengal, and had never been so much as put to
the hackle.
Nothing is so effectual as this material towards
preserving bottles from fracture; when
properly wolded, they may either be packed in
boxes, &c., without any addition of straw, &c.,
or they may be advantageously put into strong
bags of tawt, and thus, with seeming negligence,
be carried on either side the bullock. I have
several times adopted this mode, and found it
by far the safest, as well as the least expensive,
and best suited to the animal. By it, the necessity
for boxes was obviated, and a good
bullock could easily carry five dozens of wine
for any length of time, and for any number of
miles, a regiment would commonly march.
When tents are carried on oxen, it is necessary
to divide the load as equally as may be
practicable; observing, that those which have
to carry the two flies, ought not to be encumbered
with mallets, pins, &c., as it is a great
desideratum to make sure, as much as practicable,
that the flies, the pole, and a certain portion
of pins, together with a mallet or two, should
arrive early; it being of less consequence if the
bullocks bearing the walls, satrinjes, &c., be
somewhat later; since the main part of the operation
of pitching the tent, consisting of raising
the flies, may be performed, and shelter
.bn 461.png
.pn +1
afforded, without the walls, &c., being
present.
Although a very large stout bullock may,
here and there, be found capable of carrying a
pair of cloaths-trunks, with a small cot above
them, such must not be generally expected.
The trunks will, if properly constructed, sit
close, as they do on a camel; but the cot will
assuredly swag, so as to cause great unsteadiness
of gait, and subject the animal to chafe under
the pad: besides, the disposition of most bullocks
is such, as by no means to warrant the
lading them with any article subject to great
injury from a fall.
I have already said the bullock is the worst
kind of carriage used in the army, but for
draught it is essentially serviceable; in fact,
without this animal, I know not how the
service could proceed in India. A great deal,
however, depends on breed; and no less on due
feeding and proper exercise. Only certain parts
of the country, such as the Purneah and Sircar-Sarun
districts, are found to produce oxen of a
standard and frame suited to the ordnance
department; in which, on the Bengal Establishment
alone, full five thousand head of cattle are
employed, exclusive of a large establishment
of elephants and camels, allotted to the conveyance
of camp equipage.
The proportion of bullocks allowed for the
.bn 462.png
.pn +1
draught of field-pieces of various calibres, with
which they are expected to keep pace with the
ordinary rate at which troops march, are as
follow:—
.ta l:7 r:6 l:15 r:3 l:10
To a |24\ \ \ | Pounder |24 |Bullocks.
|18\ \ \ | Ditto |18 |Ditto.
|12\ \ \ | Ditto |12 |Ditto.
|\ 6\ \ \ | Ditto | 6 |Ditto.
|\ 3\ \ \ | Ditto | 4 |Ditto.
|\ 8\ \ \ | Inch Howitzer |14 |Ditto.
|\ 5½\ | Ditto |10 |Ditto.
|\ 4⅖ | Ditto | 6 |Ditto.
| Artificer’s Cart ||10 |Ditto.
| Tumbrel || 6 |Ditto.
.ta-
It may surprize those who are personally unacquainted
with India, to learn that horses are
very little employed in carriages. I have already
shewn, that, with the exception of the r’hunts let
out for hire about Calcutta, of which some are
drawn by one, or by two tattoos, all the vehicles
in use among the natives, and all the laborious
part of whatever may relate to building, trade,
and agriculture, are consigned to oxen; of
which the prices are, in some places, so low,
that a small pair, fit to be worked at a well in
a gentleman’s garden, may usually be had for
about ten rupees (i.e. 25s.); while the generality
of husbandmen rarely pay more than six
rupees (15s.) for a pair, such as are adequate to
the very insignificant tillage bestowed on the soil.
.bn 463.png
.pn +1
The indigenous breed of horses, if Bengal
can boast of any such, is remarkably small,
hardy, and vicious: to me, however, it has ever
been a doubt, whether this breed, called tattoos,
be not a degenerate race from some supply obtained,
at a very remote date, from Durbungah,
and the districts ranging under the northerly
frontier. That breed, generally distinguished
by the appellation of serissahs, is again questionable,
and may, in all probability, be traced to the
tazees, bred in the Maharrattah country, and in
every part of the Punjab.
Considering the great strength and perseverance
of tattoos in general, it is rather surprizing
that they are not put to more purposes, than
merely serving to carry a load on a march, or to
convey some infirm, or rather affluent, traveller,
when moving from one part to another. As
few castrations take place among the males, and
the sexes are allowed to intermix without restraint,
the species would multiply rapidly,
were it not that little care is taken of the pregnant
mares, and less of the progeny; which
usually has to shift for itself, and to cut its own
grass wherever a scanty meal may be obtainable.
If a selection were made of the tattoos, male
and female, fitted for breeding from, there might
be established a supply of cattle, far more useful
to the peasant, than those miserably defective
oxen which, in spite of the professed
.bn 464.png
.pn +1
veneration of all Hindus towards those sacred
animals, are often kept toiling at the plough until
nature interposes in behalf of the worn-out deity,
and compels the reluctant peasant to allow the
hour of dissolution to pass on in peace.
The Company, with a view to obtain a certain,
regular, and efficient, supply of horses for
their cavalry regiments, have, for about seventeen
years past, maintained an establishment for
breeding from select mares in North Bahar: the
liberality with which this has been supported,
and the admirable selection made of persons
for the management of every branch, should
give the most favorable result; especially as the
spot chosen for its site is peculiarly eligible
in point of grazing.
But it does not appear that the expected
benefits have been produced. I recollect seeing
a splendid calculation, made about the year
1794, which went so far as to demonstrate, that,
by the end of the twelfth year, full fifteen hundred
horses would annually be supplied from
the stud. Seeing that an agency still exists for
the purchase of cavalry horses, and knowing
that the whole strength of the light regiments of
cavalry do not exceed six thousand horses, even
including the body-guard, we may reasonably
conclude, that the stud is by no means competent
to furnish one-fourth of that number
within the year!
.bn 465.png
.pn +1
The tattoos of Bengal rarely grow to the
height of twelve hands; they are slight limbed,
and cat-hammed; but carry immense burthens
during a day’s march, and are no sooner turned
off, having their fore-feet tethered, than a general
war seems to be proclaimed among all of the
tribe that may be within sight or hearing.
Kicking, biting, and gallantry, are the order
of the day; and woe betide the incautious
wight who should, at such a time, approach
within reach of their heels!
Few tattoos ever have the bursautty; a peculiar
breaking out about the legs, (by no means resembling
the grease,) to which horses, in general,
are extremely subject throughout the low
countries; especially if their standing be not
remarkably dry, and exercise given in proportion
to their allowance of gram; which is a species
of pulse, growing on a low plant of the tare
kind, and commonly sold at about a rupee per
maund.
Of this gram, a horse will eat from three to
six seers, (of 2lb. each,) according to his size or
appetite; half in the morning, and half at night.
When high fed, and but little rode, the most
valuable horses, in particular, become victims to
the bursautty; which, though it disappears in
the spring and summer, invariably returns, generally,
too, with encreased force, during every
rainy season. As yet, no cure has been discovered
.bn 466.png
.pn +1
for this ruinous disease, though numbers
of gentlemen, of eminent abilities, have devoted
their attention towards its eradication:
its abatement has, in some instances, been
effected; but, notwithstanding the utmost skill
and perseverance, the blotches have returned, in
sufficient force to satisfy all medical men, that
no decided mode of treatment, and no general
specific, has, hitherto, been established.
The exemption of tattoos, for the most part,
from so formidable a distemper, seems to indicate
their peculiar fitness for the climate: it
matters not whether nature first planted them
on the soil, or whether, by long continuance,
they have become habituated to it, so completely
as to defy that virulence with which
the climate attacks strange animals. Wandering
among all the puddles and jungles at
every season; and subsisting on the remains of
temporary verdure; ultimately, indeed, browsing,
or devouring, the withered remains of long grass;
these useful animals contract no disease, save
what may be engendered by such absolute
scarcity as would go nigh to starve a donkey!
The next breed of horses, in point of strength
and hardiness, is the tanian, a small kind, obviously
distinct from all the other breeds of
India, and peculiar to the Thibet and Bootan
countries, that lie at the back of our eastern and
northern frontier, all the way from Assam to
.bn 467.png
.pn +1
Sirinagur: allowing for the intervention of the
Nepaul Rajah’s dominions. These horses are,
with few exceptions, piebald; though a few are
seen entirely of one color. The breed may be
characterized in a few words, viz. that they are
remarkably stout, hog-maned, have short bushy
tails, very short necks, and large heads.
The Bootan merchants, who come down
yearly with various articles of manufacture,
such as mats, cloths, &c., of a very peculiar
kind, by no means displeasing in their patterns,
commonly lade their goods upon tanians, which
they dispose of ultimately for a small sum,
perhaps from twenty-five to sixty rupees each;
reserving, however, a few, whereon to transport
the British woollens, and other articles they
obtain from the produce of their sales.
Great numbers of the natives of Bengal, who
are in good circumstances, or are obliged to
attend daily at particular offices, &c., ride on
tanians; which, though not to be termed quiet,
are far more so than tattoos in general. These
good folks abominate a trot, as being uneasy and
heating; and not one of them would so far demean
himself as to be seen gallopping! This
has given rise to the general adoption of that
unnatural, but very easy, pace called the
‘amble,’ in which a horse moves the fore and
hinder feet of the same side at one time. It is
singular, that this mode of going should be so
.bn 468.png
.pn +1
pleasant in a horse, when, in the elephant, whose
natural mode of gait it is, there should result
from it the only inconvenience with which the
motion of that animal is attended.
Tanians rarely exceed thirteen hands in height,
but their powers are wonderfully great; they
are capable of enduring great fatigue, and, though
by no means sightly in a chariot, will perform
journies equal to what might be expected from
larger animals. In general, they are rather
fiery, but, by gentle usage, shew sufficient
coolness and temper for most purposes. Like
most mountain-bred horses, they are sure-footed,
and, when left to themselves, pick the best
road with great circumspection; proceeding at
an easy pace, which they will keep up for many
hours. I know not of any breed better qualified
for drawing a light small chaise, where great
speed is not wanted; but figure must be out of
the question.
The Serissah, or Durbungah-tazee, derives its
name from the places where great numbers are
bred. These horses are generally of a light
make, and, when young, promise to turn out
well; but, as they approach their full standard,
lose many good points, and, for the most part,
become rather vicious. They are, however,
extremely serviceable as hacks, and generally
make good hog-hunters: occasionally, valuable
horses are found among them; and it is to be
.bn 469.png
.pn +1
hoped, that, as the Company’s stalions are let
out at low rates, to cover such good mares as
may be tendered at their stud, there will soon
be effected an immense improvement in the
general stock of North Bahar.
This, in fact, seems to be one of the prominent
features in the establishment of the stud,
and promises to become very conspicuously
successful; though it is to be lamented, that
the native breeders, owing to a want of liberal
ideas, and of expanded views, are too apt to
adopt that narrow policy, which prompts to
the doing that badly for sixpence, which may
be well done for a penny more! Time will
probably overcome such an absurd system, and
convince them that the payment of a few rupees,
or the subscribing to certain regulations, adopted
for the general improvement of property, so far
from being detrimental, are the surest means of
obtaining a substantial profit, in the most speedy
manner.
There are annual fairs, called maylahs, in
various parts of the country, where the horses
of this breed (i.e. serissahs,) are exhibited in
immense numbers. The greater part of them
are exposed annually at Buxar, and are purchased
by the natives, either for their own use,
or for re-sale in various parts. It is curious, but
true, that, some years ago, a great number of
horses that had been taken from Durbungah
.bn 470.png
.pn +1
into the Maharrattah country, were purchased
there for the supply of the Company’s regiments.
Formerly, the immense body of cavalry paid by
the Nabob Vizier of Oude, used to be mounted
by horses from North Bahar, but, since that
worthless gang have been sent ‘to the right
about,’ the demand created by that establishment
has been almost wholly done away.
Still, however, the prices have not, so far as I
can learn, fallen: they probably are upheld
by our encreased strength of cavalry regiments.
The price of a serissah is not to be easily
defined; a very large portion of them sell for
less than one hundred, while some reach as
high as six hundred, rupees: at a medium, we
may affix a hundred and fifty rupees at a fair
standard, if the purchase be made at a fair,
but, if second-hand, from a horse-dealer, from
fifty to a hundred per cent, may be added. I
have known very handsome sets, of four and six,
purchased at Buxar, averaging fifteen hands and
a half, that were purchased for about two hundred
rupees each, and re-sold, to friends, for five
and six hundred, a few weeks after!
The horses in highest estimation are chiefly
imported from the Punjab, and from Persia, by
regular dealers, who come down to our north-west
frontier annually, after the rains, accompanied
by many camels, generally of an excellent
.bn 471.png
.pn +1
breed, which, besides conveying the tents,
&c., of the party, bear heavy burthens of
shawls, dried fruits, and, occasionally, cats of
the most beautiful description. Such gentlemen
as wish for horses of great strength, ordinarily
purchase toorkies; which, being extremely stout,
and phlegmatic, answer well for persons of
great weight, and of timid disposition.
The Persian horses have generally a finer
shoulder, and attain a better standard, than the
toorky, which rarely measures fifteen hands,
and, in general, may be about fourteen: both
kinds are remarkable for heavy, lob-ears, and
are always well advanced in years before they
are brought for sale. Even under that great
drawback, they commonly sell for eight hundred,
or a thousand, rupees, and, when of a
handsome color, well formed, and of a good
size, will produce from fifteen hundred, to three
thousand, rupees.
The jungle-tazee, which is bred in the Punjab,
or Seik country, is, in general, handsome,
and spirited. These come at an earlier age, as
does the majennis, which is bred in the same
quarter, and is usually the offspring of a jungle-tazee
horse, with a Persian or toorky mare; or
vice versâ. Both these kinds may be rated as
rising to full fifteen hands; and their prices are
usually on a par with the toorky.
It is highly necessary, when purchasing of a
.bn 472.png
.pn +1
native dealer, to look very accurately into every
matter relating to soundness, and quietness.
Those gentry are admirable jockies, and commonly
administer such doses of opium to their
vicious cattle, as cause them for a while to
appear pre-eminently passive; a circumstance
easily detected, by insisting on the animal being
left under charge of the purchaser’s own syce,
(i.e. groom,) for a day or two, before the money
is paid.
When making bargains with European gentlemen,
the whole of the transactions are generally
overt, and free from disguise, but, when
native is opposed to native, the affair is conducted
with much assumed mystery. A cloth
is laid over the knees of the seller and purchaser,
as they squat vis a vis on the ground close together;
the hookah is introduced, and resorted to,
whenever any little difference takes place: at
other times, the parties have each one hand,
generally the right, under the cloth, when,
by means of pressures on the palms, which
denote hundreds, and of the fingers, which
denote, in their due order, 20, 40, 60, and 80,
speedily understand each other very fully. This
affectation is carried to such an extent, that I
have seen nearly a whole day passed in keeping
up the farce, though afterwards it was divulged
to me, as a great secret, that the bargain had
been made during the first five minutes; but
.bn 473.png
.pn +1
the seller was desirous to uphold a character
for being very tenacious of the sum originally
demanded!
Almost every light-colored horse, such as a
grey, or a dun, has its tail stained for many
inches near the tip with mindy, (i.e. hinna,)
as used by the ladies of Hindostan: generally,
a ring of the same is added about two
inches above, and of about two inches in depth.
On account of the inconvenience and heat
attendant upon the retention of full manes,
which are considered indispensable towards the
beauty of a horse, it is usual to braid them
with silk, or thread ties, of various colors, chiefly
red, or yellow: the practice certainly has the
intended effect, but causes a large portion of
the mane to fall off. The hair of the tail is
never cut by a native, and but rarely by an European;
on account of the millions of gad-flies,
which, but for such a defence, would irritate
the animal greatly, and occasion him to fall off,
both from his condition, and his food.
The stables for horses should be amply spacious,
and covered with thatch, in preference
to tiles, which throw too great heat into the
interior. The head-ropes, which commonly
branch out from the head-stall in different directions
angularly forward, ought to be substantial,
and rather long than limitted. The heel-ropes
ought to be full twenty feet in length,
.bn 474.png
.pn +1
and kept a little off the ground, by a small bar,
or prop, to prevent their being rotted by the
wet. One end of each heel-rope is furnished
with a loop of rather thinner and softer rope,
plaited flat, so as not to injure the pastern, round
which it loops on. But for such preventives,
the syces dare not rub down their cattle; which
would, besides, fight desperately, unless thus
restrained.
Stalls of plank are by no means suited to the
climate, nor would they offer any defence
against the horses of India, very few of which
are castrated. The best, but, at the same time,
very insufficient, device, is the placing of swinging
bars between the horses severally; even
these are no restraint, further than limitting a
horse in case he should get loose; a circumstance
instantly announced by the tremendous
uproar occasioned by such an accident, which but
rarely occurs.
On account of the extreme danger to which
horses are subjected by the frequency of fires,
it is advisable that every stable, especially if
thatched, should have a range of water-pots
placed along the ridge. These should always
be kept full of water, to be at the disposal of
men sent up to sprinkle the thatch, and to extinguish
whatever flakes may fall upon it; but,
in case the thatch itself should accidentally take
fire, before any person can mount to distribute
.bn 475.png
.pn +1
the water, then the pots should be broken, by
means of clods, poles, or whatever means may
offer under such emergency.
The horse-dealers from the Punjab, and from
Persia, may be said to lay the Company’s provinces
under annual contribution; since it is
ascertained, that, one year with another, they
take back bills, cash, or goods, (generally the
former,) to the full amount of four lacs of
rupees (£50,000). For this they deliver from
five to six hundred horses, of which nine in ten
are aged, some dried fruits, Persian cats, and
shawls, the whole intrinsic value of which, or
at least the prime cost and duties payable on the
way, cannot exceed one-fourth of that sum.
In truth, the duties, which are rigorously
exacted by various petty princes, &c., through
whose territories they must pass, form the greater
portion even of that share of the booty. Yet do
the venerable dealers in horse-flesh always plead
poverty, and that they have made so very bad
a trip, that, on their return home, their affairs
must go to ruin: however, they make a shift to
come down, year after year, though buying and
selling to so much loss!
In selling horses, it is customary to describe
their several casts, the same as those of the people
of India; thus, an auctioneer advertises a toorky,
or a majennis ‘of high cast,’ to be sold on such
a day. The term may, however, be considered
.bn 476.png
.pn +1
as rather technical, and at least as arbitrary in
its meaning, as when our British knights of
the hammer puff off some hovel, crammed into
a corner, where no one would have dreamt of
seeing an edifice, as ‘a capital mansion, undeniably
situated!’ It must, at the same time,
be acknowledged, that Asiatic advertisements
do not require to be so cautiously accepted,
cum grano salis, as those catch-penny notices,
which not only attract the eye directly, but are
literally supported by insidious puffs interspersed
among the news of the day.
The extravagant price to which all articles of
horse furniture have at times risen in India, operated
as a considerable injury to the European
manufacturer, who rarely makes much profit on
goods intended for exportation. Within the
last thirty years, numbers of persons, both European
and native, have established themselves
as saddlers and harness-makers. At first they
were not much encouraged, owing to a belief
very generally prevalent, that leather tanned in
India was inferior to that exported from this
country.
That objection did not stand its ground; for
it was soon ascertained that the bark of the baubool
(mimoza) was at least equal to that of the
oak; and that the leather prepared therewith by
several Europeans, who had constructed tan-pits,
on a large scale, was both equal to, and
.bn 477.png
.pn +1
full fifty per cent. cheaper than, what the ships
conveyed to India. Thenceforward, all the
leather-work of the carriages built in India, some
of which might vie with any to be seen in Europe,
was done with country hides. Shoe-makers,
both European and native, resorted to
the same means of supply, and offered both
boots and shoes of the best prepared leather,
the want of which had, for a long time, caused
the very neat shoes made for about a shilling the
pair, by the latter class, to be held in little
estimation.
Saddlers and harness-makers have appeared,
whose labors have proved eminently valuable;
their materials, and their work, being alike
excellent. I must here be understood to confine
my approbation to the articles manufactured
from leather tanned in a regular manner,
and not that paltry brown-paper-like rubbish
manufactured in pots and pans by indigent
natives, who often work up a skin within the
third or fourth day after its being stripped from
some starved sheep, or goat; but which leather
may always be distinguished by a narrow streak
of white, that is, of raw hide, remaining in the
middle of its thickness.
Saddles made of such crude materials, but in
every other respect by no means to be condemned,
may be had at Monghyr, where also
bits and bridles are made with singular neatness,
.bn 478.png
.pn +1
for about ten rupees (25 shillings); but those of
superior materials, and made under the inspection
of an European, will cost full as much, or
perhaps more, then the sums ordinarily paid in
London for saddles, &c., of prime quality, and
high finish.
The climate is extremely adverse to the tanner,
inasmuch as there is great difficulty in obtaining
an ample stock of raw hides; owing to the consumption
of beef and mutton being confined to
the European, and to the Mahomedan parts of the
population; and to the great difficulty of conveying
the skins to the pits before incipient
fermentation may become obvious, and disqualify
them for the purpose.
That leather might, with great advantage to
both countries, be sent from India to Europe,
cannot be doubted: the great difficulty would
be to furnish such a quantity as might render
the trade an object. According to the present
high prices, it would almost be worth while
to buy cattle in India, for the purpose of sending
their hides and tallow to market in England.
As to the benefits to arise to the state, they are
too obvious to require pointing out.
A person who might have quitted India about
thirty years ago, when the generality of articles
of almost every description in use among Europeans,
were sent from England; and when
only one or two European tailors were to be seen
.bn 479.png
.pn +1
in all Bengal; when, also, a news-paper was
scarcely in existence, would now, on landing in
that country, be astonished at the improvements
made in various branches of manufacture: he
would contemplate the advance made in the
mechanical arts as the certain fore-runner of
independence; and he would view the columns
of the several news-papers published at Calcutta,
in all fourteen, (besides magazines, &c.,) whose
columns teem with advertisements on a large
scale: these he would view as the paramount
results of great enterprize, founded upon extensive
capitals, and backed by an almost unlimitted
credit.
The news-papers are generally published once
or twice weekly, at about a rupee each; most
days of the week bring forth two papers, in
which the price of advertising is generally eight
annas, (i.e. half a rupee, or 15d.,) for each line:
as the type is rather large, the expence of advertisements
must, in some great houses, prove a
conspicuous item among the disbursements.
In this particular, the Hindostanee, or rather
the Persian, news-papers are miserably deficient;
as, indeed, they are in whatever should be the
contents of a publication devoted to the important
purposes of mercantile, or of political,
intelligence. Far from containing a single
advertisement, or from communicating any
matter relative to the arts, these bulletins, for I
.bn 480.png
.pn +1
can call them nothing better, are penned by
persons about the several native courts, according
to the whim of a sycophant, or to the mere
tattle in the suburbs of a city; nay, they are
often manufactured hundreds of miles from the
places whence they are supposed to emanate,
and contain accounts of battles and sieges, capitulations
and defeats, halts and marches, known
to the fabricators only; who, in whatever relates
to invention, contradiction, and re-contradiction,
absolutely surpass those industrious wights that
supply our British news-mongers with paragraphs
of the highest importance, accidents, murders,
&c., &c., at the cheap rate of ten shillings per
dozen!
There being no presses in use among the
natives, every communication, whether private
or public, must be manuscript; hence, the profession
of scribe is, in some places, no bad
livelihood; especially at Delhi, which, being the
ancient seat of government, and the immediate
residence of a nominal king, commonly called
‘The Great Mogul,’ supplies every quarter of
India with Akbars, (i.e. news-papers,) written
in the Persian language and character, on long
narrow slips of a paper manufactured in India,
either from bamboos, reeds, or cotton-wool.
These slips are rolled up to about an inch in
width, and, being enclosed in a small cover
pasted together, are despatched, with the shew
.bn 481.png
.pn +1
of great importance, to the several quarters of
Hindostan, under the pompous idea of their
being every where in high estimation.
The only paper published by authority in
Bengal, is the Calcutta Gazette, which is usually
replete with advertisements for the sale of lands,
printed in English, Persian, and Bengalese: as
to news, or useful essays, &c., it is uncommonly
sterile. Private advertisements in this
paper are extravagantly dear, in consequence of
the obligation imposed on all collectors, &c., to
take it in; whereby one copy at least is received
at every civil station, however small.
The advertisements for the sale of lands,
above alluded to, have sprung from the adoption
of what is called the Mocurrery system,
which originated with Mr. Thomas Law, formerly
collector of Bahar, and now settled in
America. That plan certainly wore a very specious
appearance; because it purported to be a
perpetual adjustment of the rents, which were
before subject to augmentation, and held out to
the land-holders the comforting assurance of
being considered on a footing with proprietors
in fee-simple, so long as they should pay the
rents as settled by the Mocurrery agreement.
While the plan was in agitation, and under
the consideration of Marquis Cornwallis, by
whom it was adopted, the Board of Revenue,
to which it was, pro forma, submitted, made
.bn 482.png
.pn +1
several very sensible and cogent remarks, which,
however, had not the effect of causing it to be
abandoned. Time has fully justified the objections
stated by that Board, at which the present
Lord Teignmouth, then Mr. Shore, presided;
and we find, after many years of experiment,
that, without reaping the smallest advantage
themselves, the Company appear bound to
perpetuate a resignation of their rights as proprietors
of the soil, and of their interests as a
body rationally entitled to derive an augmentation
of rent, in proportion as the produce of the soil
may become more valuable, and more abundant.
This discussion has led me to the consideration
of a most important topic; viz. the Revenue of
Bengal, of which, and its manner of collection,
I shall endeavor to give a summary; first presenting
my readers with a copy of the Mocurrery,
or permanent system.
.sp 2
.ce
BY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL.
.hr 15%
Proclamation.
.in 4
.ti -4
To the Zemindars, Independent Talookdars, and other
actual Proprietors of Land, paying Revenue to Government,
in the Provinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa.
.in
.sp 2
.ce
ARTICLE I.
.pm start_quote
In the original regulations for the decennial settlement of
the Public Revenues of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, passed
for these provinces respectively, on the 18th day of September,
1789, the 25th day of November, 1789, and the 10th
.bn 483.png
.pn +1
day of February, 1790, it was notified to the proprietors
of land with, or on behalf of, whom a settlement might
be concluded, that the jumma assessed upon their lands
under those regulations, would be continued after the expiration
of the ten years, and remain unalterable for ever, provided
such continuance should meet with the approbation
of the Honorable Court of Directors for the affairs of the
East India Company, and not otherwise.
.pm end_quote
.ce
ARTICLE II.
.pm start_quote
The Marquis Cornwallis, Knight of the Most Noble
Order of the Garter, Governor-General in Council, now
notifies to all Zemindars, Talookdars, and other actual proprietors
of land, paying revenue to Government, in the
provinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, that he has been
empowered by the Honorable Court of Directors, for the
affairs of the East India Company, to declare the jumma
which has been, or may be, assessed upon their lands,
under the regulations above mentioned, FIXED FOR EVER.
.pm end_quote
.ce
ARTICLE III.
.pm start_quote
The Governor-General in Council accordingly declares to
the Zemindars, &c., with, or on behalf of, whom a settlement
has been concluded under the regulations above mentioned,
that, at the expiration of the term of the settlement,
no alteration will be made in the assessment which they have
respectively engaged to pay; but that they, and their heirs,
and lawful successors, will be allowed to hold their estates
at such an assessment, FOR EVER.
.pm end_quote
.ce
ARTICLE IV.
.pm start_quote
The lands of some Zemindars, &c., having been held
k’has,[A] or let in farm, in consequence of their refusing to pay
the assessment required of them, under the regulations
.bn 484.png
.pn +1
above mentioned, the Governor-General in Council now
notifies to the Zemindars, &c., whose lands are held k’has,
that they shall be restored to the management of their lands,
upon their agreeing to the payment of the assessment,
which has been, or may be, required of them, in conformity
to the regulations above mentioned, and that no alteration
shall hereafter be made in that assessment, but that
they, and their heirs, and lawful successors, shall be permitted
to hold their respective estates at such an assessment
FOR EVER: and he declares to the Zemindars, &c., whose
lands have been let in farm, that they shall not regain possession
of their lands before the expiration of the period for
which they have been farmed, (unless the farmers shall
voluntarily consent to make over to them the remaining term
of their lease, and the Governor-General in Council shall
approve of the transfer,) but, that, at the expiration of
that period, upon their agreeing to the payment of the
assessment which may be required of them, they shall be
re-instated, and that no alteration shall afterwards be made
in the assessment; but that they, and their heirs, and lawful
successors, shall be allowed to hold their respective
estates at such an assessment FOR EVER.
.pm end_quote
.fn A
In hand, or in trust.
.fn-
.ce
ARTICLE V.
.pm start_quote
In the event of the proprietary right in lands that are, or
may, become the property of Government, being transferred
to individuals, such individuals, and their heirs, and
lawful successors, shall be permitted to hold the lands, at
the assessment at which they maybe transferred, FOR EVER.
.pm end_quote
.ce
ARTICLE VI.
.pm start_quote
It is well known to the Zemindars, &c., as well as to the
inhabitants of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, in general, that,
from the earliest times to the present period, the public
assessment upon the lands has never been fixed; but, that,
according to established rule and custom, the rulers of these
provinces have, from time to time, demanded an encrease of
.bn 485.png
.pn +1
assessment from the proprietors of land; and, that, for the
purpose of obtaining this encrease, not only frequent investigations
have been made, to ascertain the actual produce of
their estates, but that it has been the practice to deprive
them of the management of their lands, and either to let
them in farm, or to appoint officers on the part of Government,
to collect the assessments immediately from the Ryots.
The Honorable Court of Directors, considering these usages
and measures to be detrimental to the prosperity of the
country, have, with a view to promote the future ease and
happiness of the people, authorized the foregoing declaration;
and the Zemindars, independent Talookdars, and other
actual proprietors of land, with, or on behalf of, whom a settlement
has been made, or may be concluded, are to consider
these orders, fixing the amount of the assessments, as IRREVOCABLE,
and not liable to alteration by any persons whom
the Court of Directors may hereafter appoint to the administration
of their affairs in this country.
The Governor-General in Council trusts that the proprietors
of lands, sensible of the benefits conferred upon
them, by the public assessments being fixed FOR EVER, will
exert themselves in the cultivation of their lands, under the
certainty that they will enjoy exclusively the fruits of their
own good management and industry, and that no demand
will ever be made upon them, their heirs, or successors, by
the present, or any future, Government, for an augmentation
of the public assessment, in consequence of the improvement
of their respective estates.
To discharge the revenues at the stipulated periods,
without delay or evasion, and to conduct themselves with
good faith and moderation towards their dependant Talookdars,
and Ryots, are duties at all times indispensably required
from the proprietors of land; and a strict observance
of those duties is now, more than ever, incumbent upon
them, in return for the benefits which they themselves will
derive from the orders now issued.
.bn 486.png
.pn +1
The Governor-General in Council therefore expects that
the proprietors of land will not only act in this manner themselves,
towards their dependant Talookdars, but also enjoin
the strictest adherence to the same principles, in the
persons whom they may appoint to collect the rents for them.
He further expects they will regularly discharge the revenue
in all seasons, and he accordingly notifies to them, that,
in future, no claims, or applications, for suspensions, or
remissions, on account of drought, inundation, or other
calamity of season, will be attended to; but, that, in the
event of any Zemindar, &c., with, or on behalf of, whom a
settlement has been made, or may be concluded, on his or
her heirs, or successors, failing in the punctual discharge of
the public revenue, which has been, or may be, assessed
upon their lands, under the above-mentioned regulations, a
sale of the whole of the lands of the defaulter, or such portion
of them as may be sufficient to make good the means,
will positively and invariably take place.
.pm end_quote
.ce
ARTICLE VII.
.pm start_quote
To prevent any misconstruction of the foregoing Articles,
the Governor-General in Council thinks it necessary to
make the following declarations to the Zemindars, &c.
First. It being the duty of the ruling power to protect
all classes of people, and more particularly those who, from
situation, are most helpless, the Governor-General in Council
will, whenever he may deem it proper, enact such regulations
as he may think necessary for the protection and welfare
of the dependant Talookdars, Ryots, and other cultivators
of the soil; and no Zemindar, &c. shall be entitled, on this
account, to make any objection to the discharge of the fixed
assessment which they have respectively agreed to pay.
Second. The Governor-General in Council having, on
the 28th day of July, 1790, directed the Sayer Collections
to be abolished, a full compensation was granted to the proprietors
.bn 487.png
.pn +1
of land, for the loss of revenue sustained by them
in consequence of that abolition; and he now declares, that,
if he should hereafter think it proper to re-establish the
Sayer Collections, or any other internal duties, and to appoint
officers on the part of Government to collect them, no
proprietor of land will be admitted to any participation
thereof, or be entitled to make any claim for remissions on
that account.
Third. The Governor-General in Council will impose
such assessments as he may deem equitable, on all lands at
present alienated, and paying no public revenue, which have
been, or may be, proved to be held under illegal, or invalid
titles. The assessment so imposed will belong to Government,
and no proprietor of land will be entitled to any part of it.
Fourth. The jumma of those Zemindars, &c., which is
declared fixed, in the foregoing articles, is to be considered
unconnected with, and exclusive of, any allowances which
have been made to them in the adjustment of their jumma
for keeping up tannahs, or police-establishments, and also of
the produce of any lands which they may have been permitted
to appropriate for the same purpose: and the Governor-General
in Council reserves to himself the option of resuming
the whole, or part, of such allowances, or produce
of such lands, according as he may think proper, in consequence
of his having exonerated the proprietors of land
from the charge of keeping the peace, and appointed
officers, on the part of Government, to superintend the
police of the country.
The Governor-General in Council, however, declares
that the allowances, or the produce of lands, which may be
so resumed, will be appropriated to no other purpose but
that of defraying the expence of the police, and that instructions
will be sent to the collectors not to add such allowance,
nor the produce of such lands, to the jumma of the
proprietors of land, but to collect the amount from them
separately.
.bn 488.png
.pn +1
Fifth. Nothing contained in this Proclamation shall be
construed to render the lands of the several descriptions of
disqualified proprietors, specified in the first article of the
regulations, regarding disqualified land-holders, passed on
the 15th day of July, 1791, liable to sale for any arrears
which may accrue on the fixed jumma that has been, or may
be, assessed upon their lands under the above mentioned
regulations for the decennial settlement, provided that
such arrears have accrued, or may accrue, during the time
that they have been, or may be, dispossessed of the management
of their lands under the said regulations of July
the 15th, 1791.
It is to be understood, however, that, whenever all, or
any, of the descriptions of disqualified land-holders specified
in the first article of the last mentioned regulations,
shall be permitted to assume, or to retain, the management
of their lands, in consequence of the ground of their disqualification
no longer existing, or of the Governor-General
in Council dispensing with, altering, or abolishing, those
regulations, the lands of such proprietors will be held responsible
for the payment of the fixed jumma that has
been, or may be, assessed thereon, from the time that the
management may devolve upon them, in the same manner
as the lands of all actual proprietors of land who are declared
qualified for the management of their estates; and
also of all actual proprietors who are unqualified for such
management, by natural, or other, disabilities, but do not
come within the description of unqualified land-holders specified
in the first article of the regulations of July the 15th,
1791, are, and will be, held answerable for any arrears that
are, or may become, due from them on the fixed jumma,
which they, or any persons on their behalf, have engaged,
or may engage, to pay under the above mentioned regulations,
for the decennial settlement.
.pm end_quote
.bn 489.png
.pn +1
.ce
ARTICLE VIII.
.pm start_quote
That no doubt may be entertained whether proprietors
of land are entitled, under the existing regulations, to dispose
of their estates, without the previous sanction of
Government, the Governor-General in Council notifies to
the Zemindars, &c., that they are privileged to transfer to
whomsoever they may think proper, by sale, gift, or otherwise,
their proprietary rights in the whole, or any portion,
of their respective estates, without applying to Government
for its sanction to the transfer; and, that all such transfers
will be held valid, provided they be conformable to the
Mahomedan, or to the Hindu, Laws, [according as the
religious persuasions of the parties to each transaction may
render the validity of it determinable by the former, or the
latter, code,] and that they be not repugnant to any regulations
now in force, which may have been passed by the
British administration, or to any regulations that they may
enact hereafter.[B]
.pm end_quote
.fn B
Here appears a wide field for innovation!
.fn-
.ce
ARTICLE IX.
.pm start_quote
From the limitation of the public demand upon the
lands, the net income, and, consequently, the value (independent
of encrease obtainable by improvements) of any
landed property, for the assessments on which a distinct
engagement has been, or may be, entered into between
Government and the proprietor, or that may be separately
assessed, although included in one engagement with other
estates belonging to the same proprietor, and which may be
offered for public or private sale entire, will always be
ascertainable by a comparison of the amount of the fixed
jumma assessed upon it, (which, agreeably to the foregoing
.bn 490.png
.pn +1
declarations, is to remain unalterable FOR EVER, to whomsoever
the property may be transferred,) with the whole of
its produce, allowing for the charges of management.
But it is also essential, that a notification should be made
of the principles upon which the fixed assessment charged
upon any such estate will be apportioned on the several
divisions of it, in the event of the whole of it being transferred,
by public or private sale, or otherwise, in two or
more lots, or of a portion of it being transferred, in one,
or two, or more lots, or of its being joint property, and a
division of it being made amongst the proprietors; otherwise,
from the want of a declared rule for estimating the
proportion of the fixed jumma, with which the several
shares would be chargeable in such cases, the real value of
each share would be uncertain, and, consequently, the
benefits expected to result, from fixing the public assessment
upon the lands, would be but partially obtained.
The Governor-General in Council has, accordingly, prescribed
the following rules for apportioning the fixed assessment
in the several cases above mentioned; but, as Government
might sustain a considerable loss of revenue by disproportionate
lots of the assessment, were the apportioning
of it, in any of the cases above specified, left to the proprietors,
he requires, that all such transfers, or divisions, as
may be made by the private act of the parties themselves,
be notified to the collector of the revenue of that zillah in
which the lands may be situated, or to such other officer as
Government may, in future, prescribe, in order that the fixed
jumma assessed upon the whole estate maybe apportioned
on the several shares, in the manner hereafter directed; and
that the names of the proprietors of each share, and the
jumma charged thereon, may be entered upon the public
registers; and that separate engagements, for the payment
of the jumma assessed upon each share, may be executed
by the proprietors, who will thenceforward be considered
as actual proprietors of land.
.bn 491.png
.pn +1
And the Governor-General in Council declares, that, if
the parties to such transfers or divisions shall omit to notify
them to the collector of the revenue of the zillah, or such
other officer as may be hereafter prescribed, for the purposes
before mentioned, the whole of such estate will be
held responsible to Government for the discharge of the
fixed jumma assessed upon it, in the same manner as if no
such transfer or division had taken place.
The Governor-General in Council thinks it necessary
further to notify, in elucidation of the declarations contained
in this article, (which are conformable to the principles
of the existing regulations,) that if any Zemindar, &c.,
shall dispose of a portion of his, or her, lands, as a dependent
Talook, the jumma which may be stipulated to be paid
by the dependent Talook, will not be entered upon the records
of Government, nor will the transfer exempt such
lands from being answerable, in common with the remainder
of the estate, for the payment of the public revenue
assessed upon the whole of it, in the event of the proprietor,
or his, or her, successors, falling in arrear from any
cause whatever; nor will it be allowed, in any case, to affect
the rights, or claims, of Government, any more than if it
had never taken place.
First. In the event of the whole of the lands of a
Zemindar, &c., with, or on behalf of, whom a settlement has
been, or may be, concluded under the regulations above
mentioned, being exposed to public sale, by the order of
the Governor-General in Council, for the discharge of
arrears of assessment, or in consequence of the decision of
a court of justice, in two or more lots, the assessment upon
each lot shall be fixed at an amount which shall bear the
same proportion to its actual produce, as the fixed assessment
upon the whole of the lands sold may bear to their actual
produce. This produce shall be ascertained in the mode that
is, or may be, prescribed by the existing regulations, or
such other regulations as the Governor-General in Council
.bn 492.png
.pn +1
may, hereafter, adopt; and the purchaser, or purchasers, of
such lands, and his, or their, heirs, and lawful successors,
shall hold them at the jumma at which they may be so purchased,
FOR EVER.
Second. When a portion of the lands of a Zemindar,
&c., with, or on behalf of, whom a settlement has been, or may
be, concluded under the above regulations, shall be exposed
to public sale, by order of the Governor-General in Council,
for the liquidation of arrears of assessment, or pursuant
to the decision of a court of justice, the assessment
upon such lands, if disposed of in one lot, shall be fixed at
an amount which shall bear the same proportion to their
actual produce, as the fixed assessment upon the whole of
the lands of such proprietors, including those disposed of,
may bear to the whole of their actual produce.
If the lands sold shall be disposed of in two, or more, lots,
the assessment upon each lot shall be fixed at an amount
which shall bear the same proportion to its actual produce,
as the fixed assessment upon the whole of the lands of such
proprietor, including those sold, may bear to the amount of
their actual produce. The actual produce of the whole of
the lands of such proprietor, whether the portion of them
which may be sold be disposed of in one, or in two, or in
more, lots, shall be ascertained in the mode that is, or may
be, prescribed by the existing regulations, or such other
regulations as the Governor-General in Council may hereafter
enact, and the purchaser, or purchasers, of such lands,
and his, or her, or their, heirs, and successors, will be
allowed to hold them at the jumma at which they may be
so purchased, FOR EVER; and the remainder of the public
jumma, which will consequently be payable by the former
proprietor of the whole estate, on account of the portion of
it that may be left in his, or her, possession, will continue
unalterable FOR EVER.
Third. When a Zemindar, &c., with, or on behalf of,
whom a settlement has, or may be, made, shall transfer the
.bn 493.png
.pn +1
whole of his, or her, estate, in two, or more, distinct portions,
to two, or more, persons, or a portion thereof to one
person, or to two, or more, persons in joint property, by
private sale, gift, or otherwise, the assessment upon each
distinct portion of such estate, so transferred, shall be fixed
at an amount which shall bear the same proportion to its
actual produce, as the assessment on the whole estate of the
transferring proprietor, of which the whole, or a portion,
nay be so transferred, may bear to the whole of its actual
produce. This produce shall be ascertained in the mode
that is, or may be, prescribed by the existing regulations,
or such other regulations as Government may hereafter adopt;
and the person, or persons, to whom such lands may be
transferred, and his, or her, or their, heirs, and lawful successors,
shall hold them at the jumma at which they were
so transferred, FOR EVER; and (where only a portion of such
estate shall be transferred) the remainder of the public
jumma, which will consequently be payable by the former
proprietor of the whole estate, on account of the lands that
may remain in his, or her, possession, shall be continued
unalterable FOR EVER.
Fourth. Whenever a division shall be made of lands,
the settlement of which has been, or may be, concluded
with, or on behalf of, the proprietor, or proprietors, and
that are, or may become, the joint property of two, or
more, persons, the assessment upon each share shall be
fixed at an amount which shall bear the same proportion to
its actual produce, as the fixed jumma, assessed upon the
whole of the estate divided, may bear to the whole of its
actual produce. This produce shall be ascertained in the
mode that is, or may be, prescribed by the existing regulations,
or such other regulations as the Governor-General in
Council may hereafter adopt; and the sharers, and their
heirs, and lawful successors, shall hold their respective
shares, at the jumma at which they may be assessed, FOR
EVER.
.pm end_quote
.bn 494.png
.pn +1
.ce
ARTICLE X.
.pm start_quote
The following rules are prescribed respecting the adjustment
of the assessment on the lands of Zemindars, &c., whose
farms are, or may be, held k’has, or let in farm, in the
event of their being disposed of by public sale, or transferred
by any private act of the proprietor, or of their being
joint property, and a division of them taking place among
the proprietors.
First. If the whole, or a portion, of the lands of a
Zemindar, &c., who may not have agreed to the assessment
proposed to him, or her, under the regulations above mentioned,
and whose lands are, or may be, held k’has, or let
in farm, shall be exposed to public sale, in one, or two, or
more, lots, pursuant to the decree of a court of justice,
such lands, if k’has, shall be disposed of at whatever assessment
the Governor-General in Council may deem equitable,
and the purchaser, or purchasers, of such lands, and his, or
her, or their, lawful successors, or heirs, shall hold the land at
the assessment at which they may be so purchased, FOR EVER.
If the lands, at the time of their being exposed for sale,
shall be held in farm, and shall be put up in one, or two, or
more, lots, they shall be disposed of under the following
conditions. The purchaser, or purchasers, shall receive
during the unexpired part of the term of the lease of the
farmer, whatever such proprietor shall have been entitled to
receive in virtue of his, or her, proprietary rights, on account
of the lands so purchased, and such purchaser, or
purchasers, shall engage to pay, at the expiration of the
lease of the farmers, such assessment on account of the
lands as Government may deem equitable. The sum to be
received by the purchaser, or purchasers, during the unexpired
part of the term of the lease of the farmer, and the
jumma to be paid by such purchaser, or purchasers, after
the expiration of the lease, shall be specified at the time of
sale, and such purchaser, or purchasers, and his, or her, or
their, heirs, and lawful successors, shall be allowed to hold
.bn 495.png
.pn +1
the lands, at the assessment at which they may be so purchased,
FOR EVER.
Second. If a Zemindar, &c., whose lands are, or may
be, held k’has, or let in farm, shall transfer by private sale,
gift, or otherwise, the whole, or a portion, of his, or her,
lands, in one, or two, or more, lots, the person, or persons,
to whom the lands may be so transferred, shall be entitled
to receive from Government, (if the lands are held k’has,) or
from the farmer, (if the lands are let in farm,) the mali-connah
to which the former proprietor was entitled, on account
of the lands so transferred. The purchaser, or purchasers,
of such lands will stand in the same predicament as the
Zemindars, &c., mentioned in the fourth article, whose
lands are held k’has, or have been let in farm, in consequence
of their refusing to pay the assessment required of
them under the before mentioned regulations for the decennial
settlement, and the declarations contained in that article
are to be held applicable to them.
Third. In the event of a division being made in lands
that are, or may become, the joint property of two, or more,
persons, and which are, or may be, held k’has, or be let
in farm, the proprietors of the several shares will stand in
the same predicament, with regard to their respective shares,
as the Zemindars, &c., specified in the fourth article,
whose lands have been let in farm, or are held k’has, in consequence
of their having refused to pay the assessment required
of them under the before mentioned regulations of
the decennial settlement, and the declarations contained in
that article are to be considered applicable to them.
.pm end_quote
.ce
ARTICLE XI.
.pm start_quote
The Governor-General in Council avails himself of this
opportunity to notify to the Zemindars, &c., as well as to
all other description of persons, that it is his intention forthwith
to establish Courts of Justice throughout the country,
upon such principles as will put it out of the power of individuals
.bn 496.png
.pn +1
to injure each other with impunity, and prevent the
officers of Government from infringing the rights and property
of any of the inhabitants of these provinces, by ensuring
a speedy and impartial administration of justice in
all cases whatever.
.in 4
.ti -4
Dated at Fort-William, the 22nd day of March, 1793,
corresponding with the 12th day of Cheyte, 1199, of
the Bengal Æra, and the 9th day of Shabaun, 1207,
Higeree.
.in
.pm end_quote
In order to comprehend the foregoing more
fully, it is proper to state, that when the mocurrery
(or perpetual) system of revenue was originally
proposed, the Governor-General in
Council (Marquis Cornwallis) notified, that it
would be tried, in the first instance, for ten years
only; whence the term ‘decennial settlement.’
But, whether from an early conviction of its
excellence, or that the Marquis felt anxious to
ensure to the natives, and, as he apprehended, to
the Company also, those immense benefits attendant
upon a final adjustment of so momentous,
and so extensive a concern, we see that,
previous to his return to Europe, he rendered
the settlement as permanent as human ability
could effect. If report be true, the satisfaction
he experienced, on concluding the settlement,
was afterwards greatly diminished, when, on his
re-appointment to India, he found that a thousand
deceptions had been practised by the
natives, notwithstanding every endeavor to frustrate
such litigious or deceptive intentions;
.bn 497.png
.pn +1
that the Company’s finances had been fettered
very imprudently by that restriction which precluded
Government from availing itself of growing
resources; and that the ‘Zemindars, independent
Talookdars, and other actual proprietors
of land,’ so far from considering themselves
to be under any obligation to the Company,
raised their heads with no little insolence, and,
in many instances, even complained that enough
had not been conceded to them.
The most mortifying fact was, that full one-third
of the landed property within the Company’s
provinces had actually been under the
hammer. This was an evil which spoke for
itself, and which no gloss, no colors, could conceal.
That, under such a government, property,
to the amount of millions upon millions, should
become thus exposed to transfer, was a reflection
that could not fail to rankle in the mind of him,
who had expected to see content, prosperity,
and loyalty, teeming in every quarter! Never
was the vanity of man more conspicuously displayed,
or the mortification of disappointed
zeal more grievously felt.
The abrogation of that incertitude, which not
only subjected the land-holder to imposition,
but the revenue to much defalcation, was assuredly
a most serious consideration; but, in
adopting those measures which might seem to
have the most desirable tendency, it was necessary
.bn 498.png
.pn +1
to have a full idea of the views and dispositions
of the persons on whom the most essential
benefits were to be conferred. A deficiency
of experience, or of insight into their true
character, could alone have led the Marquis into
an error, from which the mode of extrication is,
I believe, among the most pressing desiderata of
the British government.
Much pains have been taken to prove, that
the zemindars, &c., were the legitimate proprietors
of the soil; but a very slight inspection of
the forms of ancient grants, made by the Emperors
of Hindostan, must satisfy the most scrupulous,
that no person whatever occupied the soil, except
by tolerance of that power under which it
was protected. Until our acquisition of the
Dewany, (i.e. of the government of the provinces
of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa,) no fixed
tenure, beyond the will of the ruling despot,
was known, or even claimed; to have asserted
such a right, would have been to provoke immediate
castigation, and removal from the lands.
Even in the times of our own governors, no
hesitation was made respecting the banishment
(for it virtually was one) of those who either
assumed a decided claim to the property, or
who, from whatever cause, whether rebellion,
mis-management, or unwillingness to pay their
rents, fell in arrears. Such men were always
displaced, and others were appointed in their
.bn 499.png
.pn +1
stead, as a mere matter of course. ‘Saheb ke
koossy,’ (its master’s pleasure,) was the patient
response of the offender; who, whatever might be
his feelings, or his opinions, felt the expediency
of being perfectly passive on such an occasion.
I believe the records will prove, that Mr.
Hastings, during the ten years he was in the
chair, made a very free use of this well-understood
authority; yet, so far were the natives
from thinking him unjust, or over severe, that,
when the intelligence of his being acquitted by
parliament, was received in India, such was the
pleasure felt by all classes, that addresses of
congratulation were poured in from every part
of the country! This was a compliment that
never had been paid by the natives to any of
our governors, even when about to return to
Europe; a period, at which it might be expected
some adulatory addresses might, by great
influence, be obtained: no, it was the spontaneous
flow of gratitude, pity, and admiration;
such as never would have been forth-coming, if
the ejectment of a zemindar from his soil had
been considered as the expulsion from an
hereditary or established right, rather than as
the removal of tenants-at-will.
It certainly must appear curious, that we receive
eleven-sixteenths of the produce of the
soil from its proprietors! Such is, indeed, the
case, taking all upon an average. The peasantry,
.bn 500.png
.pn +1
in a number of instances, pay more;
especially where middle-men (a class of people
by no means scarce in India) are concerned.
These are the same harpies all over the world;
never failing to reduce the industrious to distress,
and to seize upon the all of those most
unfortunate beings, whom want of experience,
or of interest, may place at their mercy!
The old system of farming out the country to
particular persons, many of whom rented of the
Company to the amount of fifty lacs, (upwards
of £600,000.,) was productive of the greatest
evils with which an industrious, but indigent,
population could have to contend! Under that
mode, it was impossible for Government to
make certain of its rents, which were generally
remitted in part to the great farmers, lest they
should, in bad seasons, oppress the Ryots, and
drive them either to despair, or out of the
country. This was intended as an act of generosity
on the part of Government, which had
not the means of enforcing arrears, otherwise
than by the sale of a farmer-general’s property,
whence but a small portion could be expected
to result; but, unhappily, no alleviation of consequence
was extended to the real agriculturist;
who, being subject to a very summary process,
was often compelled to embrace ruin, rather
than to suffer all the penalties inflicted by an
avaricious and obdurate creditor.
.bn 501.png
.pn +1
That such should have been the case under the
immediate eye of Government, may excite much
surprize; but it must be considered, that, under
the farming system, the least interference would
have instantly been the signal for universal clamor,
and that it would have proved beyond the power of
all the civil servants, throughout the Company’s
territories, to have even registered, much less to
have heard, and settled, all the references which
would have been made.
This difficulty could not fail to be greatly
augmented, by the extreme deficiency then
existing of Company’s servants in every part of
India; for, in each of the zillahs, or districts,
only a collector, with an assistant, perhaps, was
stationed. In one instance, I recollect passing
by a civil station, when marching from one province
to another, when the resident-surgeon was
under the necessity of requesting an officer of
our corps to aid him in examining the accounts of
the factory, which he had been obliged to make
out; the president and his assistant being both
absent on public business. This occurrence
afforded not only much amusement, but a wide
scope for observation regarding the paucity of
Europeans employed at the out-stations.
In those days, the collector had abundance of
duty to perform; for he was not simply to settle
all accounts respecting the revenue, and, in some
instances, of manufactures provided for the Company’s
.bn 502.png
.pn +1
homeward cargoes, but the whole of the
criminal, as well as of the civil, code of justice,
were under his control: whatever petty offences
were committed, or whatever disputes arose
among the inhabitants, became equally his province
to enquire into. Fortunately, the banian,
or dewan, employed, used to take a very considerable
portion of such toil off master’s
hands, and to prevent, by a kind of petty adaulut,
or tribunal, held in some corner of the
office, or perhaps at his own house, thousands
of references to his principal. The chief renter
of the zillah being often employed as banian to
the collector, it is easy to imagine to which side
justice, as it was called, used to incline.
Within the last twenty years, the number of
servants employed by the Company has been
greatly augmented; not only on account of their
extension of territory, but, in consequence of
the separation, very judiciously made, of two
offices, incompatible to be held by the same individual.
The collector is now, except in a very
few zillahs of less note, confined to the collection
of the revenues, having under him one or more
assistants, according to the extent of his district.
The whole of the judicial proceedings are
under cognizance of a judge, who, aided by his
register, decides civil causes between parties
residing within his jurisdiction; while the
criminal catalogue is handed over to a court
.bn 503.png
.pn +1
composed of natives versed in the Mahomedan
and Hindu laws, though the former are, generally,
the guide. These native judges are superintended
in their proceedings by three of the
Company’s servants of long standing, having
likewise under them a secretary, or register.
Such tribunals are established in various parts
of the country, particularly at Calcutta, Moorshadabad,
Dacca, Patna, Benares, and in the
Ceded Provinces, under the designation of Provincial
Courts of Appeal and Circuit. There are,
besides, judges, each having a register and an assistant,
stationed at Benares, Moorshadabad,
Patna, and Dacca, for the especial purpose of
administering justice, and for the correction of
abuses within those cities respectively.
The stations of the zillah courts, and of the
collectors, are as follow:—
.pm start_quote
.ta h:20| h:20| h:20
Agra, | Dacca, | Nuddeah,
Allahabad, | Dinapore, | Purneah,
Ally-Ghur, | Etayah, | Rajeshaye,
Backergunge,| Furruckabad, | Ramghur,
Bareilly, | Gorackpore, | Rungpore,
Bahar, | Hoogly, | Sahacunpore,
Benares, | Jessore, | Sarun,
Beerboom, | Juanpore, | Shahabad,
Boglepore, | Meerat, | Sylhet,
Burdwan, | Mirzapore, | Tipperah,
Cawnpore, | Momensing, | Tirhoot,
Chittagong, | Moorshadabad,| Twenty-four Pergunnahs.
Cuttack, | Moradabad, |
.ta-
.pm end_quote
.bn 504.png
.pn +1
The stations of the commercial residents,
whose duty is entirely confined to the providing
of investments for the Company’s shipping, are,
.pm start_quote
.ta h:20| h:20| h:20
Bareilly, |Goruckpore,| Mauldah,
Bauleah, |Hurial, | Midnapore,
Commercolly,|Hurripaul,|Patna,
Cossimbazar,|Jungipore,|Radnagore,
Dacca, |Keerpoy, |Rungpore,
Etayah, |Luckypore and Chittagong, |Santipore,
Golagore, | |Soonamooky.
.ta-
.pm end_quote
Collectors of government customs, most of
whom are also collectors of town duties, are
stationed at
.pm start_quote
.ta l:20| l:20| l:20
Benares, | Dacca, |Moorshadabad,
Calcutta,| Furruckabad,| \ \ and Patna.
Cawnpore,| Hoogly,|
.ta-
.pm end_quote
The diplomatic residents are as follow:—at
.pm start_quote
.ta l:12 h:40
Delhi. | The Court of the Emperor.
Hyderabad. | The Court of the Nizam.
Lucknow. | The Court of the Nabob Vizier of Oude.
Mysore. | The Court of the Rajah, (late Tippoo’s country.)
Nagpore. | The Court of the Berar Maharrattahs.
Poonah. | The Court of the Peishwa, and with Dowlut Row Scindeah, one of the Chiefs of the Maharrattah League.
.ta-
.pm end_quote
The difference that has been made by the
conduct of the British government, in the suppression
of an immense number of farmers on
.bn 505.png
.pn +1
the large scale, and of middle-men that again
stood between those farmers and the peasants,
has been immense. In many places, the lands
are now in the possession of an industrious
population, holding them from the renters, or, if
I may use the term, from the proprietors of villages
and small talooks, consisting of, perhaps,
three or four thousand bigahs: the revenues are
thus rendered far more easy of collection, and,
consequently, more certain; because it is now the
interest of every honest renter to be forth-coming
with his rents at the office of the collector,
at the several periods when they should be
paid.
Those periods are not equi-distant, as in
England; but are generally settled in such manner
as may be convenient to the tenants, according
as their several crops may be reasonably
expected to become marketable. The division is
by a certain number of annas, or sixteenths, in
each rupee, being payable at particular seasons;
allowance being made for the different species
of grain, &c., cultivated. There being no harvest
of grain from the beginning of November to the
beginning of March, the collections generally
fall light in the intermediate months, but, about
April and May, a large portion usually becomes
payable, and again, in Bengal, after the rice is
harvested: but, on the whole, the rent may be
commonly taken at four instalments, two of
.bn 506.png
.pn +1
which are considerable, and two of smaller portions
of the rupee.
The heavy kists, or collections, of Bengal, are
from August to January, in the proportion of
two-thirds of the whole rent; the great crops in
that quarter being cut after the rains. The
gruff kists, which include the rubbee, or small
harvest of white-corn, sugar, &c., come in between
January and the beginning of May. The
fruits, fish, &c., from April to July. In Bengal,
the year begins in April; in Bahar, it begins in
September. All the collections are made in
money. Mr. Grant, formerly collector of Bhauglepore,
has published a small tract on the subject
of the revenues, which I strongly recommend
to my readers: the work is, I believe,
rarely to be obtained; therefore, a new edition
seems to be loudly demanded.
It is to be feared, that, however beneficial
the existing system may be, and, however
equitable the arrangements made under the
Mocurrery settlement have proved themselves,
still the Company are not likely to be benefitted
in proportion to the assiduity they have displayed,
or to the tenderness with which the
rights of their subjects have been regarded.
This, however, is to be said; that, according
as the enterprize of individuals may, by degrees,
give additional value to the soil, by an
immense encrease of exportation, from various
.bn 507.png
.pn +1
parts of the country, of a million of commodities,
which, until latterly, were either unknown,
or unheeded, so will the duties collected at the
several chokies, (custom-house stations,) and at
the several ports, together with the demand for
British manufactures, be proportionally augmented.
It should be very generally made known, that
the Company receive into their treasury all the
realized property of persons demising in India,
under letters of administration, or under the acts
of executors, duly acknowledged and certified by
the supreme courts of justice at the several
presidencies. This effectually secures the interest
persons in Europe may have in the
estates of friends, &c., dying in India: so rigidly
is this observed, that the relatives of any private
soldier may fully ascertain how his property, if
any, has been disposed of, and receive whatever
sums may be forth-coming from the sale of his
effects, &c.
Such a measure fully guards the principal of
any sum left in the Company’s treasury; while,
at the same time, the most pleasing facility is
given to individuals, to enable them, or their
attornies, to receive the interest, either at the
presidency, or in the moofussul, (that is, from
the collectors,) according as may be convenient:
but such can only be done under a specific
power of attorney.
.bn 508.png
.pn +1
The generality of traders, who resort to distant
inland markets, near which to reside, or
who, in favorable situations, become conspicuous
as manufacturers, whether of indigo, cloth,
sugar, &c., have invariably some connection with
one or more agency-houses at the presidency;
on these they draw their bills, generally for hypothecated
cargoes, sent from the manufactory,
either to be sold by them, or to be shipped for
Europe. This, under a pure agency, is unexceptionable,
provided the firm rests on the broad
basis of absolute property, and does not play
with the cash belonging to its less speculative
constituents: such may be said to be merely
the bankers of those whose consignments they
receive, and pass on to this country without
participating in the adventure; and confining
themselves to a stipulated per centage on the
amounts of invoices, according to the scale in
common use.
Agency-houses are not confined to British
subjects; the Portugueze, the Armenians, the
Greeks, and others, form a portion of several
firms of great respectability; or, at least, of
those companies which, under different designations,
insure the greater part of those vessels,
which either sail from India to Europe direct,
or that traverse the Indian seas, according to
the state of the monsoons; carrying on a lucrative
trade among the several Asiatic ports.
.bn 509.png
.pn +1
It must not be supposed, that persons devoting
their whole attention to the concern of
others, in such a climate, where the expences
are very great, and from which it is an object
with most adventurers, and speculators, to retire
with such a competency as should afford some
enjoyments during the decline of life, are to be
remunerated in the same manner as though
they had merely to attend their counting-houses
in London for a very few hours daily. The
Indian agent must keep a large establishment of
sircars, podars, &c., and must maintain extensive
connections in various parts of the country:
nay, he is often expected to have an apartment,
or two, in his dwelling, devoted to the accommodation
of such of his country correspondents
as may occasionally visit the presidency.
Combining all these circumstances, it will be
evident, that his charges for commission must be
such as, among us, would appear extravagantly
high. The same causes operate towards raising
the expences of a suit in the supreme court
of judicature equally above those of the British
courts; though the latter are certainly full high
enough!
The terms of receiving, or paying, money, in
exchange with Europe, China, or other parts,
are completely arbitrary; being governed solely
by the value of money to any particular firm at
.bn 510.png
.pn +1
the time of negociating: I have known instances
of some firms declining to offer more
than two shillings and sixpence for a sicca rupee,
bills being given payable at six months after
sight in Europe, while others, whose stability
appeared equally solid, offered two shillings and
nine-pence for the same accommodation.
In point of commerce, Calcutta may, perhaps,
be properly classed with Bristol; making this
allowance, that what the former wants in the
number of vessels employed, is made up by
their average tonnage being considerable, and
the value of their cargoes far superior. The
length of the voyage must likewise be taken into
consideration: a vessel may, during times of
profound peace, make three voyages within
twelve months, from Bristol to America, or the
West Indies, and back again, and the same
either to the Baltic, or to the Levant; whereas,
few Indiamen make more than one return to
their moorings in the Thames under fifteen
months; the majority are out from fifteen to
twenty months.
Hence, all our British ports appear more
crowded, taking the year round, than Calcutta,
which, from July to November, or even to January,
often presents a forest of masts; while,
on the other hand, during the rest of the year,
only such vessels as may be under repair, or
.bn 511.png
.pn +1
that have lost their season, or that beat up the
bay against the monsoon, are to be seen in the
river.
I have already explained, that, during half the
year, that is, from about the middle of March
to the middle of September, the wind is southerly,
but then gradually changes to the northward,
from which quarter it blows regularly for
about five months, when it again gradually
veers about to the southward. This gives name
to the ‘northerly and southerly monsoons;’ which
all navigators study to take advantage of: the
difference in going with, or against the monsoon,
from Calcutta to Madras, or vice versâ, often
makes the difference of full five or six weeks,
sometimes more: the trip being very commonly
made in a week with the monsoon; but, against
it, sometimes occupying no less than three
months!
Few ships make more than one trip between
Malabar and China, within the year, on account
of the monsoon; but, between the intermediate
ports from Bombay to Calcutta, two trips may
be considered the average. During the wars
with Hyder, and his son Tippoo, vessels have
made four trips within the year, from Bengal to
Madras; but such must not be considered a
fair standard, three being considered a great exertion.
The town of Calcutta, which is estimated at
.bn 512.png
.pn +1
a population of a hundred thousand souls,
whereof not more than one thousand are British,
is situated very advantageously for commerce.
The Hoogly, which is navigable for ships of a
thousand tons, at least thirty-five miles above
Calcutta, communicates with the Ganges, by
means of the Cossimbazar river, and has communications
with the whole of the Sunderbund
Passages, either through Tolley’s Canal,
the creek called Chingrah Nullah, or the southern
passage, through Channel Creek, which is
adopted by the greater part of the vessels conveying
rice and salt from the Soonderbunds:
these are of a very stout construction, suited to
those wide expanses of water they have to cross
in that very hazardous line of navigation.
The average depth of water, within a stone’s
throw of the eastern bank, on which Calcutta
ranges for several miles, (including the suburbs
up to the Maharrattah Ditch,) may be from six
to eight fathoms when the tide is out. At particular
places, the water deepens very suddenly,
but, in most parts, a shelf, abounding with mud,
runs out for sixty or seventy yards, down to low
water mark, where the bank falls off, so that
ships of any burthen may moor within a very few
yards. The great front thus given to the town,
affords innumerable facilities to those concerned
in the shipping; especially as the custom-house,
which is on the quay belonging to the old fort,
.bn 513.png
.pn +1
stands nearly centrical, in respect to the European
population.
The donies, which are small craft intended
for the coasting trade carried on principally by
native merchants, commonly lie higher up,
opposite the Chitpore m’hut, or temple; there,
in tiers, much the same as the shipping in the
Thames, these pariah vessels present a contrast
with the superb edifices under British management,
and at once characterize not only the
ignorance, but the narrow minds of their
owners.
Few donies measure more than a hundred and
fifty tons, or have more than two masts; sloops
are by far most common, and the generality are
equipped with coir cordage, as well as with
country-made canvas.
The greater portion of these vessels return
either in ballast, after delivering their cargoes of
rice, at various ports in the Northern Sircars, or
perhaps in the Carnatic; or they import with
light cargoes, composed chiefly of coir and
cowries, from the Sechelles and Maldivies; to
which they likewise, now and then, make a
bold voyage, at favorable seasons, with small
invoices of coarse cottons, fit for the use of those
islanders.
Here, and there, we see a doney with some
European on board to navigate her; but, in
general, only natives are employed; and the
.bn 514.png
.pn +1
Europe-ships, which arrive with crews from
their respective country, are often compelled to
take a portion of lascars on board, for the purpose
of aiding those who survive the pestilential
miasma, to which they are so inconsiderately, or,
more properly, inhumanly, subjected, while
lying at Diamond-Harbour, &c. Those who
escape with their lives, are usually much weakened
by severe attacks of the ague, of which
they rarely get quit, until relieved by an alterative
course of mercury, in conjunction with the
change of air experienced by getting out to
sea.
I shall, for the present, take leave of my
readers; observing, that I am now preparing for
the press a work intended to give a full, but compact,
‘Description of India in General.’
In that work, it will be my study so to combine
and arrange the several important matters coming
under consideration, as to render the whole of
whatever may relate to that interesting quarter,
fully intelligible, and equally familiar.
.ce
FINIS.
.bn 515.png
.pn +1
.pb
.sp 4
.nf c
1810.
A LIST OF BOOKS ON
Oriental Literature,
&c.
That will be found useful to
Writers, Cadets, and Gentlemen going to the East Indies,
SOLD BY
BLACK, PARRY, AND KINGSBURY,
Booksellers to the Honorable East India Company,
Stationers, Map, and Chart Sellers,
7, LEADENHALL-STREET.
.nf-
.hr 15%
.nf c
Oriental Language, &c.
The following valuable Works are by J. BORTHWICK GILCHRIST, Esq.
LL. D. late Professor of Hindoostanee, at the College,
Fort-William, Calcutta.
.nf-
.ta ht:50 rb:4 rb:4 rb:4
| £. | s. | d.
Bagho Buhar, or the Entertaining Story of\
the Four Friars, in Hindoostanee prose | 1 | 0 | 0
British Indian Monitor, or the Anti-jargonist\
Strangers’ Guide, and Oriental Linguist,\
2 vol. | 4 | 4 | 0
Dialogues, English and Hindoostanee, on Domestic,\
Military, and Medical Subjects, &c. | 0 | 10 | 0
Gooli Buchawalee, a celebrated Eastern Romance | 0 | 16 | 0
Hidayet ool Islam, in Hindoostanee and Arabic,\
or the Moosulman’s Common Prayer Book,\
vol. 1. | 0 | 15 | 0
Hindee Arabic Mirror, or Improved Tabular\
View of Arabic Words in the Hindoostanee\
Language | 0 | 5 | 0
Hindee Moral Preceptor, or Persian Scholar’s\
Shortest Road to the Hindoostanee Language,\
et vice versâ | 1 | 0 | 0
Hindee Roman Alphabetical Prospectus | 0 | 2 | 6
. . . . . . Orthoepigraphical Ultimatum | 0 | 4 | 0
New Theory of Persian Verbs, with their Hindoostanee\
Synonymes | 0 | 12 | 0
Nuzri Benuseer, an Enchanting Fairy Tale, in\
Hindoostanee Prose, from the Original | 0 | 16 | 0
Oriental Fabulist, or Polyglot Fables, in English,\
Hindoostanee, Persian, Arabic, &c. | 1 | 0 | 0
Rose Garden of Hindoostan, a Translation of\
Sady’s celebrated Goolistan, 2 vol. | 1 | 10 | 0
Strangers’ ‘East India’ Guide to the Hindoostanee,\
bound, 8vo. | 0 | 9 | 0
.bn 516.png
.pn +1
Tota Kuhanee, or Tales of a Parrot, in Hindoostanee | 0 | 10 | 0
Uklaqui Hindee, or Indian Ethics, a Hindoostanee\
Translation of Hitoopudes | 0 | 16 | 0
.ta-
.hr 15%
.ta ht:50 rb:4 rb:4 rb:4
Ancient Indian Literature, being a Summary\
of the ‘Sheeve Pouran,’ the ‘Brahme\
Vivërtte Pooran,’ and the ‘Arthe Prekash\
Shastre;’ with Extracts and Epitomes,\
4to. bds. | 1 | 5 | 0
Anvari Soheily of Hussein Vaen Kashefy, Calcutta\
printed, 1805, half bound | 3 | 10 | 0
Baillie’s Arabic Grammar, 2 vol. 4to. | 1 | 1 | 0
Sixty Tables on ditto, folio | 1 | 1 | 0
Balfour’s Forms of Herkern, Arabic and English | 0 | 10 | 6
Barretto’s Persian and Arabic Dictionary, 2 vol.\
8vo. | 6 | 6 | 0
. . . . . Shums-ool-Loghat, or a Dictionary of\
the Persian and Arabic, the interpretation\
being in Arabic, 2 vol. 4to. | 12 | 12 | 0
Carey’s Sungskrit Grammar, with Examples for\
the Exercise of the Student, and complete\
List of the Dhatoos, or Roots, boards | 8 | 8 | 0
Carlyle’s Specimens of Arabian Poetry, 2 vol. | 0 | 16 | 0
. . . . Maured Allatafet, 4to. bds. | 0 | 15 | 0
Dudley’s, Rev. John, Nerbudda, or The Metamorphosis\
of Sona | | |
Forster’s Bongalee and English, and English and\
Bongalee Vocabulary, 2 vol. 4to. bds. | 4 | 4 | 0
Gladwin’s Gulistan of Sady, with an English\
Translation, 2 vol. 4to. | 5 | 5 | 0
. . . . Gulistan of Sady, Pers. 1 vol. 8vo. bds. | 0 | 16 | 0
. . . . Gulistan of Sady, translated, 8vo. | 0 | 10 | 6
. . . . Persian Moonshee, Persian and English,\
4to. half bound, russia | 3 | 3 | 0
. . . . Tootinameh, or Tales of a Parrot,\
Persian and English | 0 | 18 | 0
. . . . Dissertation on the Rhetoric of the\
Persians, 4to. bds. | 0 | 18 | 0
Hadley’s Moors’ Grammar, with a Vocabulary | 0 | 10 | 6
Hager’s Elements of the Chinese Language, folio | 2 | 2 | 0
Howison’s Malay Grammar and Dictionary | | |
Jones’s (Sir Wm.) Persian Grammar, 4to. bound | 1 | 1 | 0
L’Herbelot’s Bibliotheque Orientale, 4 vol. 4to. | 4 | 4 | 0
Moise’s Persian Interpreter, with a Vocabulary | 0 | 18 | 0
Ouseley’s (Sir Wm.) Persian Miscellanies, an\
Essay to facilitate the reading of Persian\
Manuscripts, 4to. bds. | 1 | 11 | 6
.bn 517.png
.pn +1
Ouseley’s Bahktyar Nameh, Persian and English | 0 | 14 | 0
. . . . Oriental Collections, 2 vol. 4to. bds. | 4 | 4 | 0
. . . . Oriental Collections, vol. 3, part I. bds. | 0 | 10 | 6
Persian Lyrics of Hafiz, 4to. bds. | 0 | 15 | 0
Pendeh-i-Attar.—The Morals of Attar, a celebrated\
Persian Poem, Pers. 12mo. bds. | 0 | 7 | 6
Richardson’s Persian, Arabic, and English Dictionary,\
by C. Wilkins, Esq. LL. D.\
2 vol. 4to. bds. | 12 | 12 | 0
Vol. II. will be delivered gratis when published;\
A few Copies are printed on Imperial Quarto.\
Richardson’s Arabic Grammar, 4to. bound | 1 | 1 | 0
Ramayuna of Valmeeki, in the original Sungskrit,\
with a Prose Translation, and Explanatory\
Notes, by W. Carey and J. Marsham,\
vol. 1, bds. | 5 | 5 | 0
Ramayuna of Valmeeki, translated from the original\
Sungskrit, by W. Carey and J. Marsham,\
8vo. vol. 1, bds. | 1 | 1 | 0
Rousseau’s Flowers of Persian Literature, 4to.\
bound | 1 | 1 | 0
. . . . . Dictionary of Mahomedan Law, &c.\
12mo. bds. | 0 | 7 | 0
Weston’s Conformity of Languages, 12mo. bds. | 0 | 7 | 6
Wilkins’s Grammar of the Sanskrita Language,\
bds. | 4 | 4 | 0
. . . . . Heetopades of Veshonoo Sarma, from\
the Sangskrit, 8vo. bds. | | |
Willmet’s Arabic Lexicon, 4to. bds. | 1 | 1 | 0
In the Press.
Dictionary, English and Hindoostanee, by John\
Borthwick Gilchrist | | |
Geography, History, &c.
Asiatic Researches, 9 vol. 8vo. bds. | 5 | 8 | 0
Annual Register, 9 vol. 8vo. half bound | 5 | 1 | 6
Ayeen Akberry, or the Institutes of the Emperor\
Akber, 2 vol. 8vo. boards | 1 | 1 | 0
Barrow’s Travels to the Cape of Good Hope, 4to. | 3 | 3 | 0
. . . . Cochin China, 4to. | 3 | 13 | 6
. . . . Travels in China, 4to. | 2 | 12 | 6
Bolt’s Considerations on Indian Affairs, 2 vol.\
4to. bds. | 2 | 2 | 0
British India Analyzed, 3 vol. 8vo. | 0 | 18 | 0
Brooke’s Gazetteer, 8vo. bound | 0 | 10 | 6
. . . . Hist. of the Island of St. Helena, 8vo.\
bds. 10s. 6d.—royal | 0 | 15 | 0
.bn 518.png
.pn +1
Buchanan’s Tour into the Mysore and Cannara,\
3 vol. 4to. with plates, bds. | 6 | 6 | 0
Ditto, large paper | 9 | 9 | 0
Chatfield’s Historical View of Hindustan, 4to. | 1 | 16 | 0
Colebrook on the Commerce of Bengal, bds. | 0 | 5 | 6
. . . .’s (H. T.) Digest of the Hindu Law,\
3 vol. 8vo. bds. | 2 | 2 | 0
Dallas’s Vindication of the Marquis Wellesley | 0 | 5 | 0
Dangers of British India from French Invasion\
and Missionary Establishments, second\
edit. by D. Hopkins, Esq. | 0 | 7 | 0
Debates on the India Budget | 0 | 5 | 0
. . . . . . . Carnatic Question | 0 | 5 | 0
Dow’s Hist. of Hindostan, 3 vol. 8vo. bds. | 1 | 7 | 0
Ditto, 3 vol. royal 8vo. | 2 | 0 | 0
East India Register and Directory, for 1810 | 0 | 7 | 6
Fuller’s Apology for the late Christian Missions\
to India, parts 1, 2, and 3, each | 0 | 2 | 6
Guthrie’s Grammar, 8vo. bound | 0 | 18 | 0
Historical View of Plans for the Government\
of British India, 4to. bds. | 1 | 1 | 0
Johnson’s Oriental Voyager, 8vo. bds. | 0 | 10 | 6
Jones’s (Sir. W.) Works, 6 vol. 4to. bds. | 10 | 10 | 0
Ditto, superfine imperial paper, with proof plates| 25 | 0 | 0
Ditto, 13 vol. 8vo. with Life by Lord Teignmouth | 6 | 16 | 6
Jones’s (Sir W.) Life, by Lord Teignmouth, 4to. | 1 | 10 | 0
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ 8vo. | 0 | 10 | 6
Indian Recreations, by Tennant, 3 vol. 8vo. bds. | 1 | 7 | 0
Lauderdale (Lord) on the Government of India,\
8vo. | 0 | 7 | 6
Macpherson’s Annals of Commerce, 4 vol. 4to. | 8 | 8 | 0
Maurice’s Dissertations on Indian Antiquities,\
7 vol. 8vo. bds. | 3 | 3 | 0
. . . . Ancient Hist. of Hindostan, 2 vol.\
4to. bds. | 3 | 17 | 6
. . . . Modern ditto, 2 vol. 4to. bds. | 4 | 4 | 0
Orme’s Hist. of Hindostan, with Fragments,\
4 vol. bds. | 4 | 8 | 0
Ouseley’s (Sir William) Epitome of the Ancient\
Hist. of Persia, bds. | 0 | 7 | 0
. . . . Geography of Ebn Haukal, 4to. bds. | 1 | 7 | 0
Patten’s Hist. of the Asiatic Monarchies, 8vo.\
bds. | 0 | 8 | 0
Percival’s Account of Ceylon, 4to. new edit. bds. | 1 | 11 | 6
. . . . . Cape of Good Hope, 4to. bds. | 1 | 0 | 0
Pinkerton’s Modern Geography, 3 vol. 4to. bds. | 6 | 6 | 0
Ditto, abridged, 8vo. bound | 0 | 13 | 6
.bn 519.png
.pn +1
Raynal’s Hist. of the European Settlements in\
the East and West Indies, 6 v. 8vo. bds. | 1 | 16 | 0
Robertson’s Disquisitions on Ancient India, 8vo.\
bds. | 0 | 9 | 0
Sale’s Alkoran of Mahommed, 2 v. 8vo. bds. | 0 | 16 | 0
Scott’s Bahar Danush, 3 vol. 8vo. bds. | 0 | 15 | 0
. . . Translation of Ferishta’s Hist. of the\
Dekkan, 2 vol. 4to. boards | 2 | 2 | 0
Syms’s Embassy to Ava, 3 vol. 8vo. and a 4to. vol.\
of plates, bds. | 1 | 11 | 6
Trial of Robert Henshaw, Esq. Custom Master\
at Bombay, 8vo. boards | 0 | 7 | 6
Vindication of the Hindoos, Parts I. and II., in\
Reply to the Observations of the Christian\
Observer of Mr. Fuller and his anonymous\
Friend; with some Remarks on a Sermon\
preached at Oxford, by the Rev. Dr.\
Barrow, by a Bengal Officer, sewed, each | 0 | 5 | 0
Walker’s Pronouncing Dictionary, 4to. bds. | 1 | 11 | 6
Ditto, 8vo. bound | 0 | 13 | 0
Wellesley’s (Marquis) Hist. of the Mahratta War,\
notes, &c. 3 parts, 4to. bds. | 1 | 16 | 0
.ta-
.nf c
A large Collection of scarce and valuable Books in the Oriental Languages, also
on the History, Antiquities, Voyages, Travels, Natural History, and
Trade of the East Indies, are constantly kept on Sale.
.nf-
.ta ht:50 rb:4 rb:4 rb:4
Atlasses and Maps.
Arrowsmith’s New Map of India, cloth and rollers | 3 | 3 | 0
Ditto, varnished | 3 | 15 | 0
Ditto, on cloth, in a portable case | 3 | 8 | 0
Ditto Map of Asia, cloth and rollers | 1 | 11 | 6
Ditto, varnished | 2 | 0 | 0
Rennel’s (Major) Map of India, cloth and rollers | 1 | 11 | 6
Ditto, varnished | 2 | 0 | 0
Ditto, on cloth, in a portable case | 1 | 13 | 6
Rennel’s Bengal Atlas, folio, half bound | 2 | 17 | 6
Small Map of India, in a portable case | 0 | 16 | 6
Military.
Act for Punishing Mutiny and Desertion, and\
Articles of War | 0 | 5 | 6
Adye on Military Courts Martial, 12mo. bds. | 0 | 4 | 6
Baker’s Practice of the Rifle Gun, 8vo. bds. | 0 | 5 | 6
Bombardier, or Pocket Gunner, 12mo. bound | 0 | 5 | 0
Cadet, a Military Treatise, 8vo. bds. | 0 | 6 | 0
Cunningham’s (Major) Tactics of the British\
Army, bds. | 0 | 18 | 0
.bn 520.png
.pn +1
Herries’s Instructions & Regulations for Cavalry,\
2 vol. | | |
Hutton’s Mathematics, 2 vol. 8vo. bds. | 0 | 18 | 0
James’s Military Dictionary, 8vo. bds. | 1 | 1 | 0
. . . . Regimental Companion, 3 vol. bds. | 0 | 18 | 0
Landmann’s Field Engineer’s Vade Mecum, 8vo. | 0 | 7 | 0
. . . . . Practical Geometry | 0 | 7 | 6
. . . . . Principles of Fortification | 0 | 3 | 6
Manual and Platoon Exercise, 8vo. bds. | 0 | 2 | 0
Military Mentor, in Letters from a General Officer\
to his Son, 2 vol. 12mo. | 0 | 12 | 0
. . . . . Essays on the Theory and Practice of\
War, 3 vol. 8vo. by the Author of the\
‘Mentor’ | 1 | 16 | 0
Muller’s Works of Fortification, Attack and Defence,\
Engineering, Artillery, &c. | | |
Officer’s Manual in the Field, or a Series of Military\
Plans, bds. | 0 | 15 | 0
Regulations for Riflemen and Light Infantry,\
8vo. bds. | 0 | 3 | 6
. . . . . and Instructions for Cavalry, &c.\
8vo. bds. | 0 | 7 | 6
Elucidation of ditto | 0 | 7 | 0
Reid on the Duties of Infantry Officers | 0 | 5 | 0
Rifle Manual, with plates, 4to. bds. | 1 | 1 | 0
Rules and Regulations for the Formation of\
His Majesty’s Infantry, 8vo. bds. | 0 | 6 | 0
Ditto for the Sword Exercise, 8vo. bds. | 0 | 7 | 0
Russell’s Instruction for Drill, 18 Manæuvres,\
&c. 8vo. bds. | 0 | 7 | 6
. . . . . Movements, &c. of Infantry, 8vo. bds. | 0 | 7 | 6
Smirke’s Review of a Battalion of Infantry, 8vo. | 0 | 7 | 0
Struensee’s Fortification, 8vo. bds. | 0 | 7 | 6
.ta-
.ce
BIBLES—PRAYER BOOKS—STATIONARY, &c.
.nf c
Where may be had, the most Esteemed Works and Modern Publications,
also the latest and most accurate Atlasses, Maps, Charts, &c.
Printed by Turner and Harwood,
St. John’s Square, London.
.nf-
.pb
.dv class='tnotes'
.ce
Transcriber’s Note
At the top of p. 175, the line ‘Brought forward 170’ represents
a continuation of table begun on the previous page. That page
break being moot here, the line has been removed as redundant.
The following issues should be noted, along with the resolutions.
There are frequent characters, particularly punctuation, which
were not visible in the copy upon which this text is based. Where
the missing character is obvious, it has been restored, as noted.
Keeping in mind the vintage of the text, spelling has generally
been followed. Where obvious printer’s errors occur, they have
been corrected, as noted below.
The city ‘Allahabad’ is printed twice, incorrectly, as ‘Allahahad’
on p. 257 and p. 327. It appears correctly elsewhere. These two
instances have been corrected.
.pm start_quote
.ta l:10 l:40 l:15
p. vi | brackis[h] waters | Restored.
p. 11 | regularl[y] | Restored.
p. 13 | compet[it]ing | Corrected.
p. 14 | harder kinds of gutty[;] | Restored. (Most probably.)
p. 15 | in with sufficient[missing word?] to heat | Sic.
p. 42 | wo[o]llen | Added.
p. 47 | as large as a quartern l[ao/oa]f | Transposed.
p. 93 | rem[ar]kably sweet | Restored.
p. 202| The enig[n/m]a | Corrected.
p. 218| th[er/re]e | Transposed.
p. 239| is [c]onfined to the care | Restored.
p. 243| Moorshada[ba]bad | Redundant. Removed.
p. 257| Allaha[h/b]ad | Corrected.
p. 261| either o[n] account of | Restored.
p. 263| c[o/a]ntonments | Corrected.
p. 272| ordinar[il]y | Added.
p. 277| atmosphere[;] while | Restored.
p. 288| succombed | Sic.
p. 328| Allaha[h/b]ad | Corrected.
p. 333| less expence tha[t/n] twenty-five rupees | Corrected.
p. 358| lie to the wes[t]ward of Saugur | Added.
p. 385| notwithstandi[n]g | Added.
| [a/i]t will be proper | Corrected.
p. 395| ea[r]gerness | Removed.
p. 405| ascertain[in]g | Added.
| [s]hould be placed | Restored.
p. 412| sine [qûa/quâ] non | Corrected.
p. 415| Colonel Richar[sd/ds]on | Transposed.
p. 420| encomiu[n/m] | Corrected.
p. 461| the Company’s [stalions] | Sic.
p. 468| sad[d]lers | Added.
p. 484 | pursuant to the [desicion/decision] | Corrected.
p. 496 | Hyd[e]rabad | Added.
p. 505 | but, in [in ]general, | Line break duplication.
.ta-
.pm end_quote
.dv-